El cerebro estresado y su implicación en el comportamiento desadaptativo durante la pandemia por COVID-19
Palabras clave:
Resumen
Los seres humanos se enfrentan a diario a situaciones estresantes ante las que deben responder con eficacia para sobrevivir y adaptarse al entorno. Sin embargo, la elevada intensidad y persistencia del estresor, como sucedió durante la pandemia del COVID-19, podría tener un efecto negativo sobre la neurología, cognición y conducta de las personas. Estructuras como la amígdala y la corteza prefrontal se ven afectadas por el estrés agudo y persistente, siendo la base explicativa de las actitudes y conductas desadaptativas que ocurren en situaciones de emergencia. Procesos como la latencia entre el estrés y la toma de decisiones, la reevaluación cognitiva, y la imitación, todos dependientes de la corteza prefrontal y la amígdala, permiten explicar la rápida difusión de las fake news, el negacionismo, y las compras compulsivas durante la pandemia del COVID-19. A partir del análisis realizado de la información, se pueden establecer unas pautas de abordaje, basadas en los conocimientos neurocognitivos, con las que afrontar situaciones de emergencia: 1) Monitorear el nivel de estrés poblacional; 2) Gestionar la información trasmitida (intensidad/frecuencia); 3) Evitar contradicciones informativas (incertidumbre); 4) Promover modelos de imitación; 5) Establecer sistemas de ayuda a grupos vulnerables; 6) Facilitar el ocio controlado.
Descargas
Altmetrics
Citas
Arnsten, A. F. T. (2018). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 410-422.
Ayers, J. W., Leas, E. C., Johnson, D. C., Poliak ,A., Althouse, B. M., Dredze, M. y Nobles, A. (2020).Internet Searches for acute anxiety during the early stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA International Medicine, 180 1706-1707.
Berghorst, L. H., Bogdan, R., Frank, M. J. y Pizzagalli, D. A. (2013). Acute stress selectively reduces reward sensitivity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 133.
Bilinski, A., y`Emanuel, E. J. (2020). COVID-19 and excess all-cause mortality in the US and 18 comparison countries. JAMA, 324(20), 2100-2102.
Blankenshipa, S. L., Botdorfa, M., Rigginsab, T. y Doughertya, L. R. (2019). Lasting effects of stress physiology on the brain: Cortisol reactivity during preschool predicts hippocampal functional connectivity at school age. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 40, 100736.
Boyd, R. y Richerson, P. (1985). Culture and the evolutionary process. University of Chicago, Chicago.
Brass, M., Ruby, P. y Splenger, S. (2009). Inhibition of imitative behaviour and social cognition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364, 2359-2367.
Brown, T. I., Gagnon, S.A. y Wagner, AD. (2020). Stress disrupts human hippocampal-prefrontal function during prospective spatial navigation and hinders flexible behavior. Current Biology, 30, R439-R441.
Burrage, E., Marshall, K.L, Santanam, N. y Chantler, P.D. (2018). Cerebrovascular dysfunction with stress and depression. Brain Circulation, 4, 43-53.
Cerqueira, J.J., Mailliet, F., Almeida, O.F., Jay, T.M. y Sousa, N. (2007). The prefrontal cortex as a key target of the maladaptive response to stress. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 2781–2787.
Coehoorn, C. J., Stuart-Hill, L. A., Abimbola, W., Neary, J.P. y Krigolson, O.E. (2020). Firefighter neural function and decision-making following rapid heat stress. Fire Safety Journal, 118, 103240.
Coltheart, M. (2010). The neuropsychology of delusions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences journal, 1191, 16-26.
Cornwall, W. (2020). Just 50% of Americans plan to get a COVID-19 vaccine: here’s how to win over the rest. Science. Posted June 30, 2020.
Dantzer, R. (2006). (2006). Cytokine, sickness behavior, and depression. Neurologic Clinics, 24, 441-460.
Datta, D. y Arnsten, A.F.T. (2019). Loss of prefrontal cortical higher cognition with uncontrollable stress: Molecular mechanisms, changes with age, and relevance to treatment. Brain Science, 9(5), 113.
De Kloet, E.R, Oitzl, M.S. y Joels, M. (1999). Stress and cognition: are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends in Neurosciences, 22, 422-426.
Duvarci, S. y Pare, D. (2014). Amygdala microcircuits controlling learned fear. Neuron, 82, 966-980.
Forbes, C.E. y Grafman, J. (2010). The Role of the human prefrontal cortex in social cognition and moral judgment. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 3, 299-324.
Forte, G., Favieri, F., Tambelli, R. y Casagrande, M. (2020). COVID-19 Pandemic in the Italian population: Validation of a Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire and prevalence of PTSD symptomatology. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 4151.
Galef, B.G. y Jr, Whiskin, E.E.(2004). Effects of environmental stability and demonstrator age on social learning of food preferences by young Norway rats. Animal Behaviour, 68, 897-902.
Garrison, J.R., Fernández-Egea, E., Zaman, R., Agius, M., Simons, J.S. (2017). Reality monitoring impairment in schizophrenia reflects specific prefrontal cortex dysfunction. NeuroImage: Clinical, 25, 260-268.
Goldfarb, E.V. (2020). Participant stress in the COVID-19 era and beyond. Neuroscience, 21, 663.
Golkar, A., Johansson, E., Kasahara, M., Osika, W., Perski, A. y Savic, I. (2014). The influence of work-related chronic stress on the regulation of emotion and on functional connectivity in the brain. PLOS One, 9, e104550.
González-Sanguino, C., Ausín, B., Castellanos, M.Á., Saiz, J., López-Gómez, A., Ugidos, C. y Muñoz, M. (2020). Mental health consequences during the initial stage of the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) in Spain. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 72-176.
Gordillo, F. y Mestas, L. (2021). El animal humano y su comportamiento en emergencias. Revista Digital Universitaria, 22.
Grüter, C. y Ratnieks, F. (12011). Honeybee foragers increase the use of waggle dance information when private information becomes unrewarding. Animal behaviour, 81, 949-954.
Hanson, J.L., Albert, D., Iselin, A.M.R., Carre, J.M., Dodge, K.A. y Hariri, A.R. (2016). Cumulative stress in childhood is associated with blunted reward-related brain activity in adulthood. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11, 405-412.
Harris, K. D. y Mrsic-Flogel, T. D. (2013). Cortical connectivity and sensory coding. Nature, 503, 51-58.
Hölzel, B.K., Carmody, J., Evans, K.C., Hoge, E.A., Dusek, J.A., Morgan, L., Pitman, R.K. y Lazar, S.W. (2010). Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5(1), 11-7.
Johnson, F.K., Delpech, J.C., Thompson, G.J., Wei, L., Hao, J., Herman, P., Hyder, F. y Kaffman, A. (2018). Amygdala hyper-connectivity in a mouse model of unpredictable early life stress. Translational psychiatry, 8, 49.
Jovanovic, H., Perski, A., Berglund, H. y Savic, I. (2011).Chronic stress is linked to 5-HT(1A) receptor changes and functional disintegration of the limbic networks. NeuroImage, 55, 1178-1188.
Kataoka, H., Shima, Y., Nakajima, K. y Nakamura, K. (2020). A central master driver of psychosocial stress responses in the rat. Science, 367, 1105-1112.
Kudielka, B.M., Kirshbaum, C. (2004). Biological bases of the stress response. In Stress and Addiction: Biological and Psychological Mechanisms, ed. M. Al’Absi (Amsterdam: Elsevier): 3-19.
Kumar, P., Berghorst, L.H., Nickerson, L.D., Dutra, S.J, Goer, F.K., Greve, D.N. y Pizzagalli, D. A. (2014). Differential effects of acute stress on anticipatory and consummatory phases of reward processing. Neuroscience, 266, 1-12.
Kvetnansky, R., Sabban, E.L. y Palkovits, M. (2009). Catecholaminergic systems in stress: structural and molecular genetic approaches. Physiological Reviews, 89, 535-606.
LeDoux JE. (1996). The emotional brain. Simon and Schuster: New York
Lefebvre, L. y Palameta, B. (1988). Mechanisms, ecology, and population difusión of socially learned, food-finding behavior in feral pigeons. En T. R. Zentall y B. G. Galef, Jr. (Eds.), Social learning: Psychological and biological perspectives (p. 141–164). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Lighthall, N., Sakaki, M., Vasunilashorn, S., Nga, L., Somayajula, S., Chen, E., Samii, N. y Mather, M. (2011). Gender differences in reward-related decisión processing under stress. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 476-84.
Liston, C., McEwen, B.S. y Casey, B. J. (2009). Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control. PNAS, 106, 912-917.
Liu, C.H, Zhang, E., Wong, G.T.F., Hyun, S. y Hahm, H. (2020b). Hahm factors associated with depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptomatology during the COVID-19 pandemic: Clinical implications for U.S. young adult mental health. Psychiatry Research, 290, 113172.
Liu, N., Zhang, F., Wei, C., Jia, Y., Shang, Z., Sun, L., Wu, L., Sun, Z., Zhoy, Y., Wang, Y. y Liu, W. (2020a). Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: gender differences matter. Psychiatry Research, 287, 112921.
Liu, W-Z., Zhang, W.H., Zheng, Z.H., Zou, J.X., Liu, X.X., Huang, S.H., You, W.J., He, Y., Zhang, J.Y., Wang, X.D. y Pan, B.X. (2020c). Identification of a prefrontal cortex-to-amygdala pathway for chronic stress-induced anxiety. Nature Communications, 11, 2221.
Lupien, S.J., Juster, R.P., Raymond, C. y Marin, M.F. (2018). The effects of chronic stress on the human brain: from neurotoxicity, to vulnerability, to opportunity. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 49, 91-105.
McKlveen, J. M., Myers, B. y Herman, J.P (2015). The Medial Prefrontal Cortex: Coordinator of autonomic, neuroendocrine and behavioural responses to stress. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 27, 446-456.
Meltzoff, A., Decety, J. (2003). What imitation tells us about social cognition: a rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 358, 491-500.
Mendoza-Halliday, D. y Martinez-Trujillo, J.C. (2017). Neuronal population coding of perceived and memorized visual features in the lateral prefrontal cortex. Nature Communications, 8, 15471.
Miller, B. L. (2020). Science Denial and COVID Conspiracy theories potential neurological mechanisms and possible responses. JAMA, 324(22), 2255-2256.
Myers, B., McKlveen, J.M. y Herman, J.P. (2014). Glucocorticoid actions on synapses, circuits, and behavior: Implications for the energetics of stress. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35, 180-196.
Negrón-Oyarzo, I., Aboitiz, F. y Fuentealba, P. (2016). Impaired functional connectivity in the prefrontal cortex: a mechanism for chronic stress-induced neuropsychiatric disorders. Neural Plasticity, 7539065.
Odriozola-González, P, Planchuelo-Gómez, A. y Irurtia, M.J. (2020). Psychological symptoms of the outbreak of the COVID-19 confinement in Spain. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(4), 825-835.
Oken, B., Chamine, I. y Wakeland, W. (2015). A systems approach to stress, stressors and resilience in humans. Behavioural Brain Research, 282, 144-154.
Ortega, S. (2019). Activación emocional en sujetos humanos: procedimientos para la inducción experimental de estrés. Psicologia USP, 30, e180176.
Pessiglione, M. y Delgado, M.R. (2015). The good, the bad and the brain: Neural correlates of appetitive and aversive values underlying decision making. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 5, 78-84.
Pocelli, A.J. y Delgado, M.R. (2017). Stress and decision making: Effects on valuation, learning, and risk-taking. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 14, 33-39.
Porcelli, A.J., Lewis, A.H. y Delgado, M.R. (2012). Acute stress influences neural circuits of reward processing. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 157.
Pruessner, M., Pruessner, J., Hellhammer, D., Piked, B. y Lupien, S. (2007). The associations among hippocampal volume, cortisol reactivity, and memory performance in healthy young men. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 155, 1-10.
Ritchie, K, Chan, D. y Watermeyer, T. (2020). The cognitive consequences of the COVID-19 epidemic: collateral damage? Brain Communications, 2, fcaa069.
Rodríguez-Rey, R., Garrido-Hernansaiz, H. y Collado, S. (2020). Psychological impact and associated factors during the initial stage of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic among the general population in Spain. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1540.
Savic, I., Perski, A., Osika, W. (2018). MRI shows that exhaustion syndrome due to chronic occupational stress is associated with partially reversible cerebral changes. Cerebral Cortex, 28, 894-906.
Savic, I. (2015). Structural changes of the brain in relation to occupational stress. Cerebral Cortex, 25, 1554-1564.
Simons, J. S., Garrison, J.R. y Johnson, M.K. (2017). Brain mechanisms of reality monitoring. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(6), 462-473.
Simpson, E., Murray, L., Paukner, A. y Ferrari, P.F. (2014). The mirror neuron system as revealed through neonatal imitation: presence from birth, predictive power and evidence of plasticity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369, 20130289.
Skau, S., Jonsdottir, I.H., Dahlman, A.S., Johansson, B.J. y Kuhn, H.G. (2021). Exhaustion disorder and altered brain activity in frontal cortex detected with fNIRS. The International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 24, 64-75.
Soares, J. M., Sampaio, A., Ferreira, L. M., Santos, N. C., Marques, F., Palha, J. A., Cerqueira, J. J. y Sousa, N. (2012). Stress-induced changes in human decision-making are reversible. Translational Psychiatry, 2, e131.
Sousa, N., Lukoyanov, N.V., Madeira, M.D., Almeida, O.F. y Paula-Barbosa, M.M. (2000). Reorganization of the morphology of hippocampal neurites and synapses after stress-induced damage correlates with behavioral improvement. Neuroscience, 97, 253-266.
Speisman, J. C., Lazarus, R.S., Mordkoff, A. y Davison, L. (1964). Experimental reduction of stress based on ego-defense theory. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science, 68, 367-380.
Starcke, K. y Brand, M. (2012). Decision making under stress. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36, 1228-1248.
Vidal-Gonzalez, I., Vidal-Gonzalez, B., Rauch, S.L. y Quirk, G.J. (2006). Microstimulation reveals opposing influences of prelimbic and infralimbic cortex on the expression of conditioned fear. Learning & Memory, 13, 728-733.
Webster, M.M. y Laland, K.N. (2008). Social learning strategies and predation risk: minnows copy only when using private information would be costly. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275, 2869-2876.
Wiblea, C.G., Andersona, J., Shentona, M.E., Kricuna, A., Hirayasua, Y., Tanakaa, S., Levitta, J.J., O'Donnella, B.F, Kikinise, R., Jolesze, F.A. y McCarleya, R.W. (2001). Psychiatry Research, 108, 65-78.
Yamakawa, K., Ohira, H., Matsunaga, M,. Isow, T. (2016). Prolonged effects of acute stress on decision-making under risk: A human psychophysiological study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 444.
Yerkes, R.M. y Dodson, J,D. (1908). The relation of strengh of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative and Neurologic Psychology, 18, 459-489.
Zhang, X., Ge, T.T., Yin, G,. Cui, R., Zhao, G. y Yang, W. (2018). Stress-Induced functional alterations in amygdala: implications for neuropsychiatric diseases. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 367.
Derechos de autor 2023 Fernando Gordillo León
Esta obra está bajo licencia internacional Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0.
Al remitir una propuesta, el/la autor/a acuerda con los términos siguientes:
a) El/la autor/a conserva los derechos de autor y cede a la revista el derecho de primera publicación de la obra.
b) Los textos se difundirán con la licencia de reconocimiento Creative Commons 4.0. BY-NC-SA que permite a terceros la distribución, la copia y la exhibición del artículo siempre que se indique la autoría, la publicación en Revista AMC, número concreto y las páginas en la que se encuentra, así como la creación de obra derivada siempre que se difunda bajo la misma licencia que el original.