Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Evaluation of Vegan and Vegetarian Customers’ Reviews

Within the Scope of Expectancy-Disconfirmation Model

Cetin Gürkan, Güney. Female. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Trakya University, Edirne,

Turkey, guneycg@yahoo.com.tr. ORCID: 0000-0002-1964-6966

Özyurt, Basak.* Female. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey,

basakozyurt1@trakya.edu.tr ORCID: 0000-0003-3225-0250

Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Female. Faculty of Tourism, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey,

kubraceliloglu@gmail.com ORCID: 0000-0002-6703-2934

*Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

The increase in the number of vegans/vegetarians in

recent years has led to their evaluation as potential

tourists in the tourism sector. This study investigates

whether Antalya, a well-known tourist destination in

Turkey, meets the needs of vegan/vegetarian

tourists. Using social media comments as data, the

study applied the Expectancy-Disconfirmation Model

(EDM) to evaluate tourist experiences. The results

show that 87.5% of vegan visitors had their

expectations met, while 12.5% reported

dissatisfaction. Of the satisfied tourists, 46%

indicated an intention to return and recommend the

destination. Positive feedback highlighted friendly

staff, quality of service, pleasant atmosphere,

convenient location, and reasonable prices. In

contrast, negative feedback, although less frequent,

mentioned inadequate labeling of vegan food,

language barriers with staff, and inconsistent quality

of service. This study highlights the importance of

food quality, effective labeling, and service

standards in ensuring the satisfaction of vegan

travelers. To increase Antalya's appeal to vegan

RESUMEN

El aumento en el número de veganos/vegetarianos en los

últimos años ha llevado a su evaluación como turistas

potenciales en el sector turístico. Este estudio investiga

si Antalya, un conocido destino turístico en Turquía,

satisface las necesidades de los turistas

veganos/vegetarianos. Utilizando comentarios en redes

sociales como datos, el estudio aplicó el Modelo de

Expectativa-Desconfirmación (EDM) para evaluar las

experiencias turísticas. Los resultados muestran que el

87,5% de los visitantes veganos vieron cumplidas sus

expectativas, mientras que el 12,5% reportó

insatisfacción. De los turistas satisfechos, el 46% indicó

su intención de regresar y recomendar el destino. Los

comentarios positivos destacaron la amabilidad del

personal, la calidad del servicio, el ambiente agradable,

la ubicación conveniente y los precios razonables. Por el

contrario, los comentarios negativos, aunque menos

frecuentes, mencionaron el etiquetado inadecuado de la

comida vegana, las barreras lingüísticas con el personal

y la calidad inconsistente del servicio. Este estudio

destaca la importancia de la calidad de la comida, el

etiquetado efectivo y los estándares de servicio para

ENLIGHTENING TOURISM: A PATHMAKING

JOURNAL

journal homepage: https://uhu.es/publicaciones/ojs/index.php/et

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

1. INTRODUCTION

Interest and inclination towards veganism and

vegetarianism are steadily increasing (Kaminski et

al., 2020; Weiper & Vonk, 2021). Although these

two concepts are related, they are not identical.

Vegetarians do not consume any form of animal

meat in their diet, while vegans abstain from both

animal-based foods and products containing animal-

derived ingredients. Additionally, vegans do not

purchase or use such products (Petti et al., 2017).

The largest vegan community in the world, The

Vegan Society (2020), defines veganism as follows:

"Veganism is a philosophy and way of living which

seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and

practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty

to, animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose;

and by extension, promotes the development and use

of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of animals,

humans, and the environment. In dietary terms, it

denotes the practice of dispensing with all products

derived wholly or partly from animals." Vegans

reject animal-sourced products and also avoid

products tested on animals. Vegans aim to eliminate

all forms of animal exploitation to the greatest extent

possible, and they pursue these efforts both

individually and collectively (Souza et al., 2020).

Products that vegans avoid purchasing include

cosmetics with animal-derived ingredients,

furniture, and even clothing (Puuronen, 2008;

Kansanen, 2013; Barrero Toral, 2016).

Vegan and vegetarian dietary choices are driven

by various sources of motivation for individuals,

including ethical, cognitive, social, ecological, and

health-related factors (Güler & Çağlayan, 2021).

Among these motivational sources are a desire to

oppose animal cruelty or not contribute to it (Hoek

et al., 2004), a wish for a healthier lifestyle from

certain perspectives (Key et al., 2006; Petti et al.,

2017), aversion to consuming meat (Kenyon &

Barker, 1998), awareness of the adverse ecological

impacts of animal-based food consumption (Gaard,

2002), food beliefs, peer or family influences (Lea &

Worsley, 2001), and certain religious beliefs like

Buddhism (Fraser, 2003). Global animal agriculture

is a significant contributor to environmental

degradation, human health issues, and animal

suffering (Bryant, 2019). Furthermore, raising

animals for food is a major factor in eutrophication,

acidification, freshwater depletion, deforestation,

and climate change (Poore & Nemecek, 2018). It is

estimated that approximately 14.5% of human-

induced greenhouse gas emissions are associated

with animal agriculture. Additionally, due to land

demand for animal farming or feed production, it is

reported that up to 91% of deforestation in the

Amazon is a result of animal agriculture (Margulis,

2003). Globally, it's estimated that over 90% of farm

animals are kept in cages in factory farms throughout

their entire lives (Anthis & Anthis, 2019), making

tourists, it is recommended that businesses train

staff on vegan dietary needs, improve English

language skills, and offer diverse, clearly labeled

vegan menu options. These measures can help

position Antalya as a more attractive destination for

vegan travelers while increasing overall customer

satisfaction.

garantizar la satisfacción de los viajeros veganos. Para

aumentar el atractivo de Antalya para los turistas

veganos, se recomienda que los negocios capaciten a su

personal sobre las necesidades dietéticas veganas,

mejoren sus conocimientos de inglés y ofrezcan opciones

de menú veganas diversas y claramente etiquetadas.

Estas medidas pueden ayudar a posicionar Antalya como

un destino más atractivo para los viajeros veganos, a la

vez que aumentan la satisfacción general del cliente.

KEYWORDS

Vegan; Vegetarian; Expectancy-disconfirmation

model; Antalya, Consumer reviews

PALABRAS CLAVE

Vegano; Vegetariano; Modelo de expectativas-

desconfirmación; Antalya, Opiniones de consumidores

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

contemporary animal agriculture one of the greatest

moral failures of our time (Poore & Nemecek, 2018).

In an era where communication channels have

become increasingly widespread, and people can

easily convey their negative thoughts about animal

products to others, the number of vegans is rapidly

rising. According to 2023 statistics, approximately

1.1% (88 million) of the world's population are

vegans. The highest percentage of vegans, 19%,

resides in India, while the UK has 2 million vegans,

and the United States has 1 million. Belgium has 3%

of its population as vegans, Israel has over 5%,

Austria has 1.45%, and so on. The vegan food

market, which was valued at $14.2 billion in 2014,

is estimated to reach $31.4 billion by 2026 (Osborn,

2023). Considering all these developments, it is

evident that vegans can be considered a new type of

tourist. Food and beverage consumption is a

fundamental need that travelers bring with them as

part of their lifestyle, whether for religious or

lifestyle reasons (Son & Xu, 2013; Lee et al., 2014).

The availability of food and beverage services at a

destination is a crucial factor in why tourists choose

to visit a particular place (Rimmington & Yüksel,

1998; Quan & Wang, 2004). Studies conducted by

Hopwood et al. (2020) and Janssen et al. (2016) have

shed light on the requirements and anticipations of

vegan and vegetarian travelers. These studies

emphasize the concerns as well, as health and

environmental reasons that drive individuals to

adopt a plant-based diet. The motivations align

closely with the food-related expectations of vegan

and vegetarian tourists when it comes to the

availability of food options that meet their

preferences and ethical standards at the places they

visit.

In Turkiye, there is a growing number of vegan-

friendly accommodations, food and beverage

businesses, grocery stores, and markets catering to

approximately 80,000 vegans (Tapınç, 2021).

Examples of accommodations include Altınyunus

Resort & Thermal Hotel, Venezia Palace, Otel

Zeytinada, and Omm Inn. Notable businesses in

Istanbul include Vegan Bakkal, Vegan Dükkan,

Makai, İyi Lokanta, Bi Nevi Deli, Muhtelif Mekan,

and Mahatma. In Izmir, there are places like Yaşam

Kafe and Seromoni Kafe, while in Ankara,

establishments such as Vegiso and Veganka are on

the rise (Vatan & Türkbaş, 2018). The rise in vegan

and vegetarian populations and businesses in

Turkiye has significantly boosted academic research

on these topics (Kaytez & Tunçay, 2020; Ayyıldız &

Sezgin, 2021; Güler & Çağlayan, 2021; Türker &

Ayyıldız, 2021). Sünnetçioğlu et al. (2017) found

that vegans face challenges when dining out, such as

menu content, staff attitudes, and overall

experiences. Ayyıldız & Sezgin (2021) highlighted

issues in food and beverage establishments,

including high prices, lack of trust, and insufficient

staff knowledge regarding menu content.

The purpose of this research is to assess the

attractiveness of Antalya by analyzing its appeal to

vegan and vegetarian travelers in alignment with the

increasing trend toward veganism. The study aims to

explore the experiences of vegan and vegetarian

travelers in Antalya and gauge their satisfaction

levels. It also seeks to delve into the reasons behind

any dissatisfaction they may have encountered and

assess their likelihood of returning to the destination.

Although Antalya is a globally recognized tourism

destination, there is a lack of comprehensive

research on its attractiveness to vegan tourists (Yu et

al., 2024). While vegan tourism attracts attention as

a growing niche market (Akkan & Bozyiğit, 2020),

Antalya's potential in this field is a missing topic.

This study aims to fill this gap by analyzing the

extent to which businesses in the region meet the

expectations of vegan tourists. The research aims to

evaluate whether Antalya is a suitable destination for

vegan tourists and to provide improvement

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

suggestions for tourism businesses by analyzing

their positive and negative experiences. Antalya is

also one of the most visited cities in Turkiye with its

wide tourism potential and globally recognized

destination quality. Therefore, evaluating the

services offered by the city for vegan tourists can

reveal important results not only for the region but

also for the tourism sector in general.

Additionally, the study will provide

recommendations and evaluate tourists’ satisfaction

levels based on the Expectation Dissatisfaction

Model by identifying both positive and negative

aspects of service offered by tourism businesses. The

study examined all the evaluations based on insights

gathered from social media comments.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1) VEGAN/VEGETARIAN TOURISTS IN

TOURISM SECTOR

In the last few years, there has been a growing

interest in the vegan movement and veganism

(Souza et al., 2020; Bertella, 2020). It is believed

that a plant-based diet, which restricts animal

products, can improve personal health, alleviate

animal suffering, reduce global shortages, and

enhance sustainability (Wu, 2014). While Hoek et

al. (2004) draw attention to the emergence of

'vegetarian-focused consumerism' addressing ethical

and environmental concerns, Fox (1999)

recommends that a vegetarian economy, affecting

both developed and developing countries,

contributes to 'ecosystem health' by diminishing the

effect on land degradation through environmental

pollution, intensive agriculture, and grazing.

Veganism is defined as a "philosophy and way of

living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible

and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and

cruelty to, animals for food, clothing, or any other

purpose" (The Vegan Society, 2020). This definition

emphasizes a lifestyle beyond diet, comprising

clothing, furniture, and personal care. The restrictive

clause of the definition as far as is possible and

practicable is crucial because, given the wide range

from tennis balls tested on animals to

pharmaceuticals, absolute avoidance of animal

products is nearly impossible. Even in the process of

growing vegan foods, numerous animals

unavoidably die, such as rodents (Gruen & Jones,

2015).

Veganism involves the adoption of a diet that

excludes all animal products, including meat, dairy,

eggs, and other animal-derived products (Souza et

al., 2020). Various factors contribute to people

adopting a vegan or vegetarian diet. Examples of

these factors include ethical and religious beliefs, the

environmental impact of the diet, the health benefits

of a plant-based diet, and concerns for animal

welfare (Aktaş et al., 2019). In a study aimed at

identifying the motivation sources of vegetarians,

Fox & Ward (2008) found that vegetarianism was

initially a significant source of motivation for

preventive action against health-related reasons and

reducing the symptoms of diseases. The second

motivation source is ethical concerns about animal

welfare. Ethical reasons significantly motivate

vegetarians based on both emotional and

philosophical grounds. Out of the 33 vegetarians

who participated in the study, only one identified

environmentalism as their primary motivation. Some

empirical evidence indicates that the main driving

force behind veganism is an ethical concern for

animal welfare. Furthermore, expected health

benefits come in second place, with an expected

advantage for the environment ranking third.

Additionally, ethical concerns for animals encourage

vegetarians to maintain their dietary choices

consistently and even transition from vegetarianism

to veganism (Rosenfeld, 2018).

The challenges and difficulties of being vegan can

be grouped under three common themes: (1)

individual barriers and preferences, such as

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

difficulties in giving up meat, dairy, and egg

consumption and catering to taste preferences; (2)

practical obstacles like limited options when dining

out and a lack of time to change dietary habits; and

(3) social barriers such as stigmatization, prejudice,

and harassment against vegans (Souza et al., 2020).

Finding food outside their local area is often difficult

for vegans due to the limited availability and higher

cost of vegan products. For traveling

vegans/vegetarians, offering a variety of high-

quality meals is essential to effectively meet their

tastes and needs (Akkan & Bozyiğit, 2020).

Academic research focusing on the needs of such

tourists has started to take place in the literature.

Table 1 summarizes studies on vegan/vegetarian

perspectives in tourism, focusing on objectives,

methods, and findings.

Findings

-The study explored the attributes of a vegan hotel and identified six attributes: health and beauty, guilt, social

ethics, environmental concern, religion, and curiosity.

-The attributes of vegan hotels have a positive effect on well-being perceptions, perceived advantage and

enjoyment, and the positive behavioral intentions of vegan hotel guests.

-The promotion of meatless gastronomy can be seen not as a threat but as a great opportunity that will help to

support sustainability and make the destinations even more attractive.

-It is important to understand that the success of such an initiative depends on the cooperation of all the

stakeholders, strategic marketing, and the ability to keep the prices reasonable.

-In a vegan-friendly destination, aspects such as commitment to vegan philosophy, vegan cuisine, meeting the

needs of vegan visitors, eliminating or reducing animal exploitation, complementary social interactions, and

positive attitudes of local people stand out.

-Vegan hotels enhance consumption value by integrating health, ethical, and environmental values, fostering

customer loyalty and positive word-of-mouth. However, perceived costs may diminish these effects, highlighting

the importance of balanced pricing and effective communication of benefits.

-The vegan lifestyle significantly shapes travel experiences and influences destination choices.

-Vegans prioritize destinations with plant-based dining options, ethical practices, and accessibility to vegan-

friendly services.

-Travelers are motivated to experience a tour where vegan food is available, as well as to encourage a positive

attitude toward vegan food amongst their family.

-There are links between vegan tour and its positive psy- chological benefits.

Vegetarians choose hotels that are clean, animal-friendly, and that care about animal rights.

Both gender and level of education do not affect the priority that these tourists assign to their nutrition when they

travel. However, age, nationality, and income level do affect the prioritization that these tourists give nutrition

when they travel.

When people choose vegetarian restaurants, they prefer ones that provide Chinese-style cuisines, organic foods,

cuisines that can help to lose weight, interiors with simple décor, and ones that promote environmental

protection.

The travel motivators and the type of travel impact the attitudes toward food habits while traveling. For vegan

culinary tourists, the quality of the food has a bigger impact on the travel experience than for those with other

travel motivators. Amongst all the respondents the impact on travel experience was mostly seen more as a

positive issue rather than negative. The majority of the respondents did not feel that their diet influenced getting

to know the culture of the destination.

Methodology

Qualitative and

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative &

Quantitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Theory Applied

N/A

The Consumption

Value Theory

N/A

N/Av

N/A

Objective

-To explore the attributes of vegan hotels using both qualitative and quantitative

approaches,

-To investigate the effects of the explored attributes on perceived well-being,

perceived advantage, perceived enjoyment, and behavioral intentions.

To evaluate the potential impact of promoting and increasing the availability of

meatless gastronomy on the attractiveness of a popular European urban

destination.

To explore how to develop vegan-friendly tourism destinations.

To study how vegan-friendly attributes impact consumer behavior in hotels.

To explore how the vegan lifestyle shapes travel experiences, focusing on

challenges faced during travel and key factors influencing destination selection.

To examine the features of a vegan tour to Wuyi Mountain, explore tourists’

motivations for joining, and their benefits from such a tour. Motivations include

personal vegan food preferences, changing family members' attitudes toward

vegan food, and visiting local attractions.

To investigate the hotel selection preferences of vegetarians in Turkiye.

To understand the factors that determine the destination choice of vegetarian

tourists.

-To understand and evaluate the customers’ preferences when selecting

vegetarian restaurants.

-To research ways to encourage consumers to choose vegetarian restaurants.

To figure out how a vegan diet influences travel experiences and to understand

what solutions vegans have come up with in order to deal with a situation

where suitable food is not available.

Country

South Korea

Turkiye

Korea

China

Turkiye

Spain

Taiwan

Finland

Author(s)

Yu, Kim,Baah, & Han

Lochman & Vagner

Basol & Alvarez

Yu, Kim, Baah, Seo &Han

Ottenabbacher, Busam,

Harrington & Allhoff

Li, Liu, Cai, & Scott

Dilek & Fennell

Molina-Gomez, Ruiz, & Mele

Cheng, Lin, & Tsai

Kansanen

Year

2024

2023

2021

2018

2014

2013

Table 1. Empirical studies in tourism literature with a focus on vegan/vegetarian perspectives

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

The dining experience greatly influences the

perceptions and satisfaction of travelers.

Unfavorable feedback could influence their loyalty

and how they view the place they are visiting,

ultimately affecting the destination's reputation

(Molina-Gomez et al., 2018). Research carried out

by Ottenbacher et al. (2023) has shown that vegan

travelers expressed dissatisfaction with the options

and subpar quality of vegan meals available to them

during their travels. The study also highlighted that

the primary concern raised by vegan travelers is the

common mix-up between veganism and

vegetarianism. For vegan tourists, finding products

and meals that meet their expectations and

requirements can be quite challenging, which

significantly limits their available options (Barrero

Toral, 2016).

Dilek & Dilek (2020: 152) defined the vegan

tourist as “primarily a person who has a sense of

responsibility, prioritizes sustainability, opposes all

kinds of the commodification of animals and

transforms this into a way of life”. Vegan tourists,

hailing from a group exceeding 600 million people

worldwide who have embraced vegan or vegetarian

diets (Vatan & Türkbaş, 2018), share similar

expectations with other tourists, seeking novel

experiences, knowledge, and flavors. Therefore,

travel companies offer diverse dietary options to

ensure a satisfying experience for their customers.

When the primary goal of a trip is to relish food and

actively engage in culinary activities, it is inevitable

that food considerations become decisive factors in

destination and activity choices. Many travel

companies explore various culinary offerings to

provide their customers with a positive and

memorable experience throughout their journey

(Barrero Toral, 2016).

According to the research conducted by Zouni

and Klouvidaki (2022) on the destination selection

of vegans, it was found that the most important

reason for traveling among vegans is leisure, while

the primary source of information for destination

selection is articles in newspapers and magazines.

Another significant finding of this research is the

concerns regarding food options at the destinations.

While the respondents’ top priority is the attractions,

vegan restaurants are the second most important

factor. Cheng et al.’s (2014) study indicates that

vegetarian tourists prioritize food quality, cuisine

style, health concept, restaurant design, and

environmental protection when selecting a

restaurant. Specifically, the most important factors

are food quality, particularly if it is organic, the style

of cuisine, the health benefits of the food, the design

and ambiance of the restaurant, and the restaurant’s

commitment to environmental sustainability. In the

study by Kaygalak Çelebi and Günlü Küçükaltan

(2017), which was conducted in Turkiye and focused

on the tourism experiences of vegan bloggers, vegan

local foods emerged as an important factor in the

bloggers' travel experiences. However, the bloggers

also particularly emphasized the inadequacy of

vegan hotels and restaurants where these foods could

be experienced.

The proliferation of vegan/vegetarian dietary

models has led to a gradual increase in the number

of destinations, accommodation establishments, and

restaurants sporting vegetarian or vegan labels.

Vegetarian and vegan festivals are organized in

many regions around the world. From a culinary

tourism perspective, Didim, following in the

footsteps of Barcelona, one of the world's foremost

destinations, has put forth its candidacy as a Vegan-

Friendly City. In this context, Didim has established

itself as a destination hosting the Vegan Festival

since 2017 (Aktaş et al., 2019). Dilek & Fennell

(2018), examined the hotel choices of 328

vegans/vegetarians at this vegan festival in Didim

and also examined in detail their preferences for the

service they received at restaurants. The study’s

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

findings on restaurant selection indicate that

vegetarian tourists place significant importance on

animal-friendly and environmentally-friendly

practices, hygiene and food safety, vegetarian menu

options, and the knowledge level of the staff.

Specifically, factors such as food safety standards,

the absence of chemical additives and GMOs,

healthy and organic food, offering a separate

vegetarian menu, and staff providing information

about food and beverages are among the most

important considerations. On the other hand, Başol

& Alvarez (2023) investigated Didim’s potential as

a vegan destination and found that vegan tourists in

Didim highly value the availability of authentic local

vegan cuisine and the overall vegan-friendly

atmosphere when selecting dining options. The

research highlights that while Didim offers some

vegan-friendly restaurants and local foods, the

limited options and lack of promotional materials to

guide vegan visitors indicate a need for further

development to fully meet the expectations of vegan

tourists.

2.2) EXPECTANCY-DISCONFIRMATION

MODEL AND CUSTOMER PREFERENCES

The study of consumer buying behavior in

marketing began in the 1950s (Nilsson, 2010:35).

Consumer buying behavior encompasses

individuals' processes of researching, selecting,

purchasing, using, and evaluating products or

services, as well as their subjective mental and

material activities (Xinhui & Han, 2016). The central

elements of this framework are consumer

satisfaction and expectation.

Research on psychology and organizational

behavior frequently utilizes the concept of

expectations. It is generally accepted that

expectations are subjective evaluations and

judgments that people or groups make in particular

circumstances (Jia et al., 2024). Customers'

expectations include their assumptions and forecasts

on the product or service they will receive (Benek,

2022). Consumers’ expectations are shaped by their

past experiences with the product or service;

personal needs and objectives; the individual's

personality traits; the characteristics features and

experiences the brand has so far offered; the

possibilities for future goods and services the brand

may give; and the intangible feeling the product

creates in the customer (Altın, 2021; Şengün, 2021;

Canoz & Gündüz, 2022; Dixit, 2013). Consumers

with high expectations for a product or service tend

to have a higher level of uncertainty avoidance. The

satisfaction level of such consumers tends to be

lower, whereas those with low service expectations

tend to have a high level of satisfaction.

Customer satisfaction is a concept highly

emphasized and explored by the marketing and

service sectors, as it is regarded as a critical success

factor in various industries, including

accommodation (Barbosa, 2019; Alzoubi et al.,

2021). Satisfaction is defined from the consumer's

perspective by Oliver (1981: 29) as "the summary

psychological state resulting when the emotion

surrounding disconfirmed expectations is coupled

with the consumer's prior feelings about the

consumption experience." Customer satisfaction,

which enhances customer loyalty, positive word-of-

mouth communication, the psychological response

of the customer, customer retention, and

consequently the profitability of the company, is also

defined as an overall evaluation of the performance

of various features that constitute a product or

service (Bartikowski & Llosa, 2004; Awara &

Anyadighibe, 2014). One of the most widely used

theories to explain customer satisfaction is the

Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT), which

posits that satisfaction results from the inconsistency

between expectations and perceived performance

(Bartikowski & Llosa, 2004; Bhattacherjee, 2001;

Awara & Anyadighibe, 2014; Hui et al., 2007). This

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

theory has become the most commonly applied

method to investigate customer satisfaction and

dissatisfaction with products and services (Lee et al.,

2022).

Consumer behavior is a complex process that

encompasses activities individuals undertake when

seeking, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating,

and disposing of products and services to satisfy

their needs, wishes, and desires. Various internal and

external factors influence consumer behaviors and

satisfaction, with emotional concerns and

expectations being among the primary factors. The

initial propositions that linked disconfirmed

expectations to customer satisfaction were

developed by Engel et al. (1968) and Howard &

Sheth (1969, 145-150).

In this regard, Engel et al. (1978) proposed the

Consumer Decision Making Model (EKB Model),

which explains how consumers make decisions

during the decision-making process and select from

the list of available alternatives. This model, built

upon consumer psychology theories and models

developed by Howard (1963) and Nicosia (1966),

consists of five steps in which information is

processed before consumption decisions are made

(cited in Oliver, 1980). On the other hand, according

to Howard and Sheth (1969), the concept of

satisfaction expresses the degree of inconsistency

between expectations and perceived experiences.

Expectancy confirmation/disconfirmation can be

determined through two methods, such as the

inferred approach and the direct approach. The

inferred approach involves calculating the

inconsistency between expectations and

performance evaluations, while the direct approach

uses scales to measure confirmation/

disconfirmation, such as "better than expected" and

"worse than expected" (Dai et al., 2020: 6).

Stages of the model include the recognition of a

need or problem, acquiring relevant information

from various sources, evaluating alternatives based

on the consumer's personal criteria in determining

preferences, purchasing the selected alternative once

a decision is made, and post-purchase evaluation.

Satisfied customers tend to form intentions for repeat

purchases, while dissatisfied customers discontinue

their future use (Bhattacherjee, 2001). If the product

or service experience meets or exceeds the

expectations held when making the purchase choice,

the consumer will be satisfied with their purchase

decision. Nevertheless, when product or service

expectations are not met, dissonance is experienced.

When this happens, the consumer initiates a

research, information acquisition, and evaluation

process regarding other options (Tan, 2010). This

evaluation of the service forms the foundation for the

development of feelings of satisfaction or

dissatisfaction (Nilsson, 2010).

The Expectation Disconfirmation Theory (EDT),

also known as the Expectation Confirmation Theory

(ECT) in the literature (Awara & Anyadighibe,

2014), drew inspiration from the Cognitive

Dissonance Theory (CDT) proposed by Leon

Festinger (1957). EDT was developed as a way to

explain the consumer's decision-making process

(Grimmelikhuijsen & Porumbescu, 2017). EDM,

which is widely used in the field of tourism (Zehrer

et al., 2011; Ye et al., 2019), is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Expectancy disconfirmation model

(Oliver, 1980)

According to the Expectation Disconfirmation

Theory, individuals enter a certain level of

expectation regarding a service just before making a

purchase. When they actively use the service, they

compare their perceived service performance with

their expectations. When perceived performance

exceeds expectations, it leads to positive

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

disconfirmation; when it meets expectations, it

results in confirmation, and when it falls short of

expectations, negative disconfirmation occurs

(Serenko & Stach, 2009; Oliver, 1980; Hui et al.,

2007; Abrate et al., 2021; Bhattacherjee, 2001; Özer,

1999; Awara & Anyadighibe, 2014; Yüksel &

Yüksel, 2001).

Olshavsky and Miller (1972), who examined

both the positive and negative consequences of

disconfirmation of expectation for a product,

identified four categories: high expectancy-high

performance (HE-HP), high expectancy-low

performance (HE-LP), low expectancy-high

performance (LE-HP), and low expectancy-low

performance (LE-LP). EDT argues that consumer

intention to repurchase a product or continue to use

a service is primarily determined by their satisfaction

from the previous use of that product or service. EDT

also considers expectation a determining factor for

satisfaction (Bhattacherjee, 2001). This theory

introduced by Oliver (1980) has shed light on

subsequent research. Building upon EDT,

Parasuraman et al. (1985, 1988) introduced the

Service Quality Model, arguing that perceived

service quality is the result of comparing the

expected service with the perceived service.

The Expectation Disconfirmation Theory is

largely used in research within the tourism sector

(Ye et al., 2019; Zehrer et al., 2011; Yüksel &

Yüksel, 2001; Pizam & Milman, 1993; Weber, 1997;

Abrate et al., 2021; Lakho et al., 2023; Rathjens et

al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023). While not directly

mentioning that their research relies on EDT,

numerous studies have delved into customer

preferences and satisfaction levels, as well as

recommendations and the likelihood of customers

revisiting establishments. In a study conducted by

Kala (2020), it was found that customer preferences

were significantly influenced by factors such as the

restaurant's location and ambiance along with the

quality of service provided. The study also

emphasized how traditional cooking methods and

locally sourced authentic dishes contributed to a

memorable dining experience for patrons.

Furthermore, the appearance of restaurant staff and

their interactions with customers play a role in

boosting customer satisfaction levels and fostering

repeat visits to the establishment.

A study by Gvion (2023) focusing on vegan

dining establishments in Israel indicates that the

increasing presence of vegan restaurants has an

impact on customer satisfaction levels and the

likelihood of receiving recommendations and repeat

visits due to making veganism more accessible and

appealing to a wider audience, serving to bridge

social divides and project a favorable image of

veganism while also dealing with the challenges of

upholding its unique ethical and political messages

The research by Li et al. (2021) found that catering

to the specific dietary requirements of vegan

travelers significantly boosts their overall

satisfaction, with their travel experiences. Guests

were really happy with the vegan food options and

the attentive service provided at the venue which

went beyond what they expected. Special

experiences like tea ceremonies added to their

experience. Some issues like not having enough

vegan choices and staff not being fully aware of

vegan needs led to some negative feedback. In

summary, it is key to know and meet the

expectations of vegan travelers, for a great

experience and positive reviews. Yu et al.’s (2023)

research revealed that features of vegan hotels

influenced customer satisfaction and loyalty. The

study discovered the perceived benefits of choosing

vegan accommodations in terms of health

advantages, ethical gratification, and environmental

support.

Research in the tourism sector delves into what

travelers anticipate before their journey begins and

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

examines their experiences while traveling, as well

as their reflections after returning home. This

research plays a role in helping tourism businesses

refine their offerings to delight customers and inspire

them to travel again. Furthermore, this body of

knowledge is instrumental in advancing

understanding throughout the tourism sector

including areas, like how tourists seek information

before vacations, plan their holidays, and rate their

satisfaction levels afterward.

The review of the literature highlights the

significance of fulfilling the preferences of vegan

travelers with regard to food information accuracy,

excellence, service provision, and staff competence.

These elements are closely linked to the research aim

of evaluating Antalya's appeal to vegan visitors

through the EDT model. By examining results from

research like the benefits of catering to vegan

choices as shown in the study by Barrero Toral

(2016) and the obstacles outlined by Souza et al.

(2020); this investigation seeks to address

knowledge gaps concerning how effectively a

renowned tourist hotspot, such as Antalya, matches

these requirements.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1) PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLECTION

The current research evaluates the satisfaction

levels of tourists visiting Antalya with businesses

offering vegan food and beverages. It also evaluates

their likelihood of providing recommendations or

warnings based on their satisfaction, the extent of

their expectations from the businesses they

patronized, and the positive and negative aspects

they perceived about these establishments. The

research specifically concentrated on the concept of

veganism, which encompasses vegetarian nutrition

as well. Furthermore, it limited its scope to

comments related only to nutrition and did not delve

into the consumption habits of vegan individuals

beyond dietary considerations.

In this study, the criterion sampling method, one

of the purposive sampling methods, was used to

choose a sample. In purposive sampling, the

researcher selects a subgroup representing the

universe and is a typical example of the population.

It is used especially in cases where the sampling

frame is unclear and the researcher is knowledgeable

about the population (Lin, 1976). Criterion sampling

is the study of all cases that meet a predetermined set

of criteria. The criterion is created by the researcher,

or a previously prepared list of criteria can be used

(Marshall & Rossman, 2014; Baltacı, 2018). For

criterion sampling, any situation that is the subject of

research can be determined as the criterion (Grix,

2010). The criteria used in this research are

consuming vegan food and beverages and

commenting on Tripadvisor. According to this

criterion, a total of 444 comments constitute the

sample of the research. In qualitative research, the

adequacy of sample size is measured by data depth

rather than frequencies. Therefore, samples should

consist of participants who best represent the

research topic (O’Reilly & Parker, 2013; Yağar,

2023). There are different expressions of various

authors regarding the sample size. For example,

according to Bertaux (1981), 15 participants are

sufficient, according to Charmaz (2006), and

according to Green and Thorogood (2018), at least

20 participants are sufficient. According to the

literature, it can be said that the number 444 is

acceptable for sample adequacy.

In recent years, numerous studies in the field of

tourism have utilized online comments as valuable

data sources (Fernandes & Fernandes, 2018;

Taecharungroj & Mathayomchan, 2019; Özen,

2021; Hu et al., 2022). These comments play a

pivotal role in shaping tourists' expectations about

destinations and businesses (Narangajavana et al.,

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

2017). Besides, there is a common belief that

comments directly from product and service users

hold greater reliability compared to information

provided by the businesses themselves (Zhang et al.,

2021). To this end, TripAdvisor, the most frequented

social media platform by tourists planning their trips,

with around 463 million monthly users during peak

periods (Tripadvisor, 2023), served as a primary data

source for this study. The data collected underwent

content analysis. Initially, each comment was

meticulously examined, and those relevant to the

research scope were identified. Keywords and

phrases related to the research model were then

highlighted, recorded, and subsequently integrated

into the model. Each interpretation provided a

singular perspective in the model, considered to be

the contribution of an individual. Moreover, when

comments employed similar expressions to describe

the characteristics of food and beverage businesses,

a unified code was assigned for the respective

feature. No redundant coding was applied within the

same comment. Consequently, each feature assessed

in the result section was derived from the

interpretation of a single individual.

The data for this study were gathered from the

relevant social media network between May 1st and

May 15th, 2022. The data collection process is

outlined in the following steps (see Table 2).

Step

Actions

Searched for the keyword vegan in the city of Antalya on Tripadvisor. Found results for

343 businesses with relevant reviews.

Excluded businesses other than hotels, restaurants/cafes, and facilities outside the

Antalya Region due to a system error.

Individually accessed the review pages of the remaining 269 businesses and re-searched

the vegan keyword. Some businesses had no relevant reviews.

Copied and compiled reviews from 205 food and beverage businesses (98 hotels and 107

restaurants/cafes) into a single file, resulting in a total of 746 comments.

Reviewed each comment and isolated comments (444) where the author consumed vegan

food or beverages, or at least one person in their group (family/friend/partner) did.

Table 2. Steps of the data collection process

3.2) VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

In this research, researchers conducted open

coding by transforming the shared comments into

codes. To ensure the validity of the research, a peer

confirmation method was employed, and three

faculty members confirmed the coding process.

Additionally, to assess the research's reliability,

tourism experts also examined the codes related to

visitor comments, categorizing them as Agreement

or Disagreement. These two categories underwent

the Kappa test, a recognized inter-rater reliability

measure. According to Şencan (2005), Kappa values

between 0.40 and 0.75 are considered reasonable and

indicate agreement. Our Kappa analysis, performed

using the MAXQDA 2018 qualitative data analysis

program, yielded a Kappa Confidence Coefficient

(KGK) value of 0.79, which, according to Şencan

(2005), signifies a reliable level of agreement.

4. RESULTS

Within the scope of this research, each comment

recorded as a dataset was examined to assess

satisfaction and dissatisfaction. A total of 444

comments that indicated satisfaction or

dissatisfaction with vegan food and beverages were

included in the evaluation and interpretation. The

research results are presented in two main sections:

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

First, an assessment of EDM based on the

comments, and second, an overview of the positive

and negative aspects of food and beverage

businesses from the perspective of vegan tourists.

4.1) EVALUATION BASED ON THE

EXPECTANCY-DISCONFIRMATION MODEL

In this study, researchers considered the

expectation variable in the model as the consistent

desire to find diverse and high-quality vegan food

and beverages. Employing EDM, researchers

categorized each comment into two groups: positive

disconfirmation for comments that exceeded

expectations and negative disconfirmation for

comments that fell short of expectations, based on

whether the stated expectation was met or not.

Comments that exceeded expectations were coded as

satisfaction, while those that fell short were coded as

dissatisfaction. Subsequently, the behaviors of vegan

tourists that can influence potential tourists'

decisions were identified, as presented in Figure 2.

Initially, statements expressing positive and

negative expectations of vegan tourists were

segregated. Positive fulfillment of expectations

included phrases like "delicious vegan food" (259

reviews) and "a wide variety of vegan options" (169

reviews), while unmet expectations were expressed

in statements such as "limited vegan choices" (58

reviews) and "unsatisfying vegan food" (16

reviews), which reflected satisfaction and

dissatisfaction rates.

Figure 2. Expectancy-Disconfirmation Model reflection of the study

According to Figure 2, out of the 444 reviews

analyzed, 184 only conveyed satisfaction, while 114

recommended the business to both satisfied and

potential vegan tourists. Of the satisfied reviewers,

67 stressed their intention to revisit, with 24 using

expressions that combined both recommendations

and intentions to revisit. Among those expressing

dissatisfaction, a majority (38 comments) only

conveyed dissatisfaction without any other

messages, while eight individuals both expressed

dissatisfaction and indicated they would not revisit.

Seven individuals, dissatisfied with their

experience, warned potential vegan tourists against

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

choosing the establishment. Only two commenters

combined warnings with statements of not revisiting.

Number of

Comments

% in

Total

Number of

Comments

% in

Total

Satisfaction

184

41,4

Dissatisfaction

8,6

Satisfaction + Recommendation

114

25,7

Dissatisfaction + Intention

not to revisit

1,8

Satisfaction + Revisiting

Intention

Dissatisfaction + Cautionary

Message

1,6

Satisfaction + Revisiting

Intention + Recommendation

5,4

Dissatisfaction + Cautionary

Message + Intention not to

revisit

0,5

Total Satisfaction

389

87,5

Total Dissatisfaction

12,5

Table 3. Percentage distribution of satisfaction/dissatisfaction statements

When examining the percentage distribution of

the comments in detail, 87.5% (389 comments)

expressed satisfaction, while about 31% of these

satisfied comments recommended the place to other

potential tourists. Dissatisfaction was evident in only

12.5% of the reviews, and approximately 2.1% of

these dissatisfied reviewers cautioned other users

against selecting the business.

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Figure 3. The final model of the study

The model presented in Figure 3 developed

through an extensive analysis of TripAdvisor

reviews from vegan and vegetarian tourists, applies

the expectation-disconfirmation paradigm to vegan

tourists' perceptions of food and beverage

establishments. It suggests that vegan tourists arrive

with expectations about vegan-friendly dining

options' availability, quality, and service. Their

actual experience, or perceived performance, is then

compared to these expectations. When perceived

performance meets or exceeds expectations,

satisfaction occurs, leading to intentions to revisit

and recommend the establishment, thus fostering

positive word-of-mouth. However, when perceived

performance falls short, dissatisfaction results,

potentially leading to negative perceptions and

discouraging future visits. The model underscores

the importance of managing expectations in the

vegan tourism sector, showing that meeting or

exceeding expectations promotes positive consumer

behavior, while unmet expectations can harm the

reputation of vegan-friendly businesses.

4.2) PERCEIVED POSITIVE-NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE

BUSINESSES

Revisiting Intention

Cautionary Message

Intention not to Revisit

Satisfaction

Recommendation

Cautionary

Message

Dissatisfaction

Disconfirmation

Perceived

Performance

Expectation

Confirmation

Intention not

to Revisit

Revisiting Intention

Recommendation

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Figure 4. Perceived positive and negative features of the food & beverage businesses

Figure 4 illustrates that the number of positive

characteristics emphasized by vegan tourists in their

comments significantly outweighs the negative ones.

Among the positive aspects, "friendly staff & good

service" received the highest number of mentions

(241 comments). Following closely were positive

mentions about the establishment's atmosphere (89

reviews), affordable pricing (46 reviews), and

location (36 reviews). Although the presence of

English-speaking staff, hygiene, and the availability

of vegan-labeled products were not frequently

repeated, the absence of these features was

highlighted more often among the negative aspects.

The most frequently mentioned negative feature was

"unfriendly staff & poor service," which can be

contrasted with the most commonly cited positive

characteristic. Other negative aspects included

inadequate food labeling (16 comments) and staff

members' inability to communicate in English (11

comments), respectively. Several issues were rarely

mentioned but deemed significant as they were also

emphasized in the positive aspects. These issues

include high pricing, subpar hygiene, limited

knowledge about veganism, and an unpleasant

atmosphere.

5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND

CONCLUSION

This research evaluates whether Antalya, one of

Turkiye's most prominent tourist destinations with a

significant position in the global tourism market, is

an appealing choice for vegan travelers within the

framework of EDM. Additionally, it assesses the

positive and negative attributes of the establishments

providing food and beverage services to vegan

tourists. The study's data was collected through a

thorough examination of one of the most widely

commented tourism-oriented social media

platforms, Tripadvisor. For vegans who abstain from

consuming animal-derived foods, the expectation of

finding a variety of high-quality vegan food and

beverages plays a pivotal role in selecting holiday

destinations (Li et al., 2021). Since traveling beyond

their comfort zone can limit food and beverage

options for vegans (Barrero Toral, 2016; Souza et

al., 2020), the research evaluated this expectation as

a fixed factor in the model. Initially, 746 comments

were individually scrutinized following various

criteria-based eliminations. Among these comments,

444 comments expressing satisfaction or

dissatisfaction were considered for the model test.

The analysis of the perceived performance in

meeting the expectation within the content of the

comments revealed that 259 comments contained

statements and expressions conveying the perception

of "delicious vegan food," while 168 comments

mentioned "plenty of vegan options." Sixteen

reviewers emphasized that the food and beverages

they consumed were tasteless, and 59 reviewers

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

complained about the scarcity of vegan options.

These results indicated that the expectation was

largely met. Applying these results to the model

demonstrated high levels of satisfaction among

tourists who consumed vegan food and beverages in

this region. Within the comments, 184 used

expressions of being "satisfied" exclusively, while

114 expressed satisfaction and recommended the

place. Additionally, 67 reviews conveyed both

satisfaction and an intention to revisit, and 24

comments exhibited satisfaction while also

expressing an intention to revisit and recommend.

These results are consistent with numerous previous

studies (Chen & Tsai, 2007; Reza Jalilvand et al.,

2014; Allameh et al., 2015; Mannan et al., 2019;

Kumar et al., 2020; Nguyen Viet et al., 2020;

Seetanah et al., 2020; Mancı, 2022) that have found

positive relationships between satisfaction, loyalty,

and revisit intentions across different countries,

regions, and services. Moreover, the research's

results are also in line with results from previous

studies that have identified positive connections

between satisfaction and recommendations (Hui et

al., 2007; Lee et al., 2007; Altunel & Erkurt, 2015;

Čaušević, 2020; Mancı, 2022). Regarding the model

analysis in the study, there were 38 comments from

tourists who were dissatisfied with the food and

beverages they consumed, eight comments from

individuals stating they were not satisfied and would

not revisit the establishment, seven dissatisfaction

comments warning others, and two comments

warning other potential customers and those who

decided not to revisit due to unmet expectations. As

it is seen 55 feedback overall are included in the

model. Sánchez-García & Currás-Pérez (2011)

demonstrated in their comprehensive study

examining the impact of dissatisfaction on tourists'

behavior that negative word-of-mouth is a possible

outcome. In another study, Lam-González et al.

(2021) examined the sources of satisfaction,

concluding that tourists' dissatisfactions related to

hygiene and crowds have a negative effect on their

intention to revisit. However, in the study conducted

by Serenko & Stach (2009), no direct relationship

was found between positive or negative

disconfirmation and customer loyalty and

recommendation.

When examining the comments in terms of the

emphasis placed by vegans on the characteristics of

the establishments where they receive catering

services, it becomes evident that friendly staff and

good service (mentioned in 241 comments) are the

most highlighted positive aspects. Additionally, the

atmosphere (89 reviews), reasonable prices (46

reviews), good location (35 reviews), and staff

members’ ability to speak English (12 reviews) were

positive aspects that satisfied consumers who

purchased vegan food services. Among the

statements regarding the characteristics of food and

beverage businesses, positive ones significantly

outnumber the negative ones. This aligns with

studies showing that personnel behavior and the

quality of service have a substantial impact on

customer satisfaction (Chow et al., 2007; Turkay &

Sengul, 2014; Alhelalat et al., 2017; Mensah &

Mensah, 2018; Padma & Ahn, 2020). Similarly, the

results of this study are consistent with studies

indicating that the atmosphere of a food and

beverage business positively affects customer

satisfaction and loyalty (Ünal et al., 2014; Najhan et

al., 2022; Özdemir Güzel & Dinçer, 2023).

Nonetheless, it is worth noting that Kement et al.

(2021) and Christiarini & Lee (2021) found in their

studies that restaurant atmosphere did not affect

customers' intention to revisit and recommend the

business. Conversely, among the most emphasized

negative features were unfriendly staff and poor

service (mentioned in 25 comments), followed by

issues related to the inadequate labeling of vegan

food (16 comments) and the absence of English-

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

speaking staff (11 comments). Similar to the

problem of identifying vegan foods on buffets or

menus, this study's findings align with those of

Sünnetçioğlu et al. (2017), which highlighted menu

content as one of the significant problems faced by

vegans. Additionally, the results related to staff

attitude and respect in this study are consistent with

the results of the aforementioned study. The issue of

high prices, mentioned in negative statements, also

corresponds to the results of the study conducted by

Ayyıldız & Sezgin (2021).

This research adds to the increasing literature on

vegan tourism and expectancy disconfirmation

theory (EDT) by exploring the satisfaction of vegan

travelers and their experiences in a popular

Mediterranean tourism destination, Antalya. Despite

the vast studies on customer satisfaction and loyalty

in the tourism industry, very little research is

currently available that focuses on the expectations

and experiences of vegan tourists. Moreover,

previous research on the application of EDT in the

tourism context is fairly general in its orientation,

with very few studies investigating its

appropriateness for niche markets, such as vegan

tourism. To this end, this research employs a novel

methodological approach to examine the

expectations, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions

of vegan travelers using a large dataset of user-

generated content (UGC) from TripAdvisor. Unlike

many prior studies which are based on small-scale

qualitative data, this study offers quantitative

findings from a large sample, thus providing a more

general picture of the experiences of vegan tourists.

Thus, the study identifies key service attributes that

lead to the satisfaction and dissatisfaction of vegan

tourists through the systematic categorization of

positive and negative reviews to enhance destination

competitiveness and hospitality management of

niche tourism markets. Furthermore, the findings of

the study contribute to the application of expectancy-

disconfirmation theory in the tourism context by

explaining how service quality, labeling, staff

knowledge, and pricing influence the satisfaction of

vegan tourists.

Building upon these contributions, this study also

confirms results from prior research in both the

tourism and food & beverage sectors, reinforcing the

idea that meeting the expectations of vegan tourists

yields positive outcomes, such as positive word-of-

mouth, recommendations, and intentions to revisit.

Future research could delve deeper into the travel

motivations of different dietary groups, offering

valuable insights into destination choices among this

tourist demographic. Also, for businesses aiming to

cater to vegan tourists, the results of the study

revealed that ensuring their employees are

knowledgeable about this dietary preference, clearly

labeling vegan food and beverages on their menus,

and setting more reasonable prices for vegan foods

compared to the general trend can have a significant

impact on the satisfaction of this type of tourist.

Businesses in the tourism sector in Antalya can

benefit from these discoveries to elevate their

offerings for vegan travelers significantly by

enhancing the identification of vegan meal options,

educating their staff on vegan requirements, and

improving their language proficiency in English to

boost guest satisfaction levels noticeably, as well as

incorporating actionable insights for marketing

strategies targeting vegan tourists by highlighting

warm and welcoming staff members, exceptional

service delivery, and creating a positive ambiance, in

promotional materials to draw in more vegan

explorers, ultimately tailoring services to cater

specifically to the unique preferences of vegan

visitors. Including a range of plant-based choices

and making sure labels are easy to understand, along

with giving details about the ingredients, can

improve how customers feel about their experience

overall.

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

The results of this research indicate that vegan

tourists visiting Antalya exhibit a high level of

satisfaction with businesses that offer vegan food

and beverages. Moreover, highly satisfied tourists

tend to recommend these restaurants to other tourists

through social media platforms, suggesting a sense

of loyalty to these establishments, as supported by

this study's results. It can be speculated that

individuals with a high level of satisfaction develop

a sense of loyalty to businesses, which is also

confirmed by the results of this study.

In summary, the vegan/vegetarian tourist

comments analyzed in this study highlight the

significance of English-speaking staff, quality

service, and genuinely friendly personnel.

Additionally, clearly labeling vegan and vegetarian

food and beverages can address one of the key

challenges. This study underscores the importance of

maintaining high satisfaction levels among tourist

groups with diverse consumption habits,

contributing to service quality in the tourism sector

and the longevity of businesses. To enhance the

satisfaction of vegan visitors in Antalya, it is

important for businesses to uphold cleanliness

standards and have knowledgeable staff who are

well-informed about veganism, as well as deliver

exceptional service. Also, educating staff about

vegan requirements and enabling them to

communicate proficiently in English can greatly

enhance customer satisfaction. Moreover,

broadening the range of vegan dishes in restaurants

and hotels by utilizing top-notch locally sourced

ingredients is key to meeting and surpassing the

demands of vegan guests. Featuring innovative

plant-based meals can offer a memorable dining

adventure that attracts local and global visitors alike.

It is vital to label vegan dishes on menus and buffets

as it empowers vegan travelers to make well-

informed decisions while fostering trust and

minimizing the risk of disappointing dining

encounters. Furthermore, highlighting the wellness

and eco-friendly advantages of veganism through

tailored efforts can draw in more vegan travelers,

underscoring the importance of using organic and

sustainable ingredients to boost a location's

reputation as a welcoming destination for vegans.

6. LIMITATIONS

The use of only one social media platform for

data collection and the evaluation of comments

related to only one destination are the most

significant limitations of this study. Therefore, in

future research, sharing the study's results with a

broader range of destinations, utilizing comments

from various platforms, and conducting individual

interviews and surveys could offer a more

comprehensive perspective. Furthermore, this study

solely assessed the perspectives of vegan tourists

who received services, resulting in a one-sided

viewpoint. Obtaining more objective results could be

feasible by utilizing extensive datasets that

encompass feedback to which service providers can

respond.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors report there are no competing

interests to declare.

REFERENCES

Abrate, G., Quinton, S., & Pera, R. (2021). The

relationship between price paid and hotel review

ratings: Expectancy-disconfirmation or placebo

effect? Tourism Management, 85, 1-10.

Akkan, E., & Bozyığıt, S. (2020). Bir niş pazar

olarak Türkiye'deki vegan ürünler: Tüketici bakış

açısından keşfedici bir araştırma [Vegan products

in Turkey as a niche market: An exploratory study

from the consumer perspective]. 1. Tüketici ve

Tüketim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 12(1), 101-149.

Aktaş, N., Şen, A., Çil, M. (2019, April 19-2).

Gastronomi turizminde yeni bir eğilim: vejetaryen

ve vegan festivaller [A new trend in gastronomy

tourism: Vegetarian and vegan festivals]

[Conference presentation]. Mersin University,

Mersin, Turkiye.

Alhelalat, J., Ma’moun, A., & Twaissi, N. (2017).

The impact of personal and functional aspects of

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

restaurant employee service behaviour on customer

satisfaction. International Journal of Hospitality

Management, 66, 46-53.

Allameh, S. M., Pool, J. K., Jaberi, A., Salehzadeh,

R., & Asadi, H. (2015). Factors influencing sport

tourists’ revisit intentions: The role and effect of

destination image, perceived quality, perceived

value and satisfaction. Asia Pacific Journal of

Marketing and Logistics, 27(2), 91-207.

Altın, S. (2021). Kuşaklara göre hizmet

beklentilerinin farklılaşması: Konaklama

işletmeleri üzerine bir araştırma [The

differentiation of service expectations according to

generations: A research on hospitality businesses]

(Publication No. 664734). [Doctoral dissertation,

Gazi University]. Council of Higher Education

Thesis Center.

Altunel, M. C., & Erkurt, B. (2015). Cultural

tourism in Istanbul: The mediation effect of tourist

experience and satisfaction on the relationship

between involvement and recommendation

intention. Journal of Destination Marketing &

Management, 4(4), 213-221.

Alzoubi, H. M., Vij, M., Vij, A., & Hanaysha, J. R.

(2021). What leads guests to satisfaction and

loyalty in UAE five-star hotels? Ahp analysis to

service quality dimensions. Enlightening Tourism.

A Pathmaking Journal, 11(1), 102-135.

Anthis, K., & Anthis, J. R. (2019, February 21).

Global farmed factory farmed animals estimates.

Sentience Institute.

https://www.sentienceinstitute.org/global-animal-

farming-estimates

Awara, N. F., & Anyadighibe, J. A. (2014). The

relationship between customer satisfaction and

loyalty: A study of selected eateries in Calabar,

Cross River State. Interdisciplinary Journal of

Contemporary Research in Business, 5(9), 110-125.

Ayyıldız, S., & Sezgin, A. C. (2021).

Vejeteryan/Vegan bireylerin yiyecek içecek

işletmeleri tercihleri ve sorunları [Food-drink place

choices and problems of vegan/vegetarian

individuals]. Journal of Tourism Research Institute,

2(1), 1-16.

Baltacı, A. A. (2018). Nitel araştırmalarda

örnekleme yöntemleri ve örnek hacmi sorunsalı

üzerine kavramsal bir inceleme [Conceptual review

of sampling methods and sample size problems in

qualitative research]. Journal of Bitlis Eren

University Institute of Social Sciences, 7(1), 231-

274.

Barbosa, S. R. P. (2019). Airbnb customer

satisfaction through online reviews. (Publication

No. 202321894) [Master’s thesis, Wilmington

University]. Iscte Repository.

Barrero Toral, M. (2016). Vegan menu as a decisive

factor when booking a cruise through the Baltic

(Publication No. 10024/179). [Bachelor’s thesis,

Tampere University of Applied Sciences].

https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/106963?show

=full

Bartikowski, B., & Llosa, S. (2004). Customer

satisfaction measurement: Comparing four methods

of attribute categorisations. The Service Industries

Journal, 24(4), 67-82.

Başol, C. İ., & Alvarez, M. D. (2023).

Development of a vegan-friendly destination—The

case of Didim. Tourism Planning & Development,

21(5), 594–613.

Benek, H. (2022). Müze deneyim değerinin

ziyaretçi memnuniyetine etkisinde ziyaretçi

ilgileniminin rolü: Göreme açık hava müzesi örneği

[The role of visitor involvement in the effect of

experience value of museum on visitor satisfaction:

the case of Göreme open air museum] (Publication

No. 709600) [Doctoral dissertation, Nevşehir Hacı

Bektaş Veli University]. YÖK Tez Merkezi

Bertaux, D. (1981). From the life-history approach

to the transformation of sociological practice.

Biography and society: The life history approach in

the social sciences. Sage Publications.

Bertella, G. (2020). The vegan food experience:

Searching for happiness in the Norwegian

foodscape. Societies, 10(4), 1-18.

Bhattacherjee, A. (2001). Understanding

information systems continuance: An expectation-

confirmation model. MIS Quarterly, 25(3), 351-

370.

Bryant, C. J. (2019). We can’t keep meating like

this: Attitudes towards vegetarian and vegan diets

in the United Kingdom. Sustainability, 11(23), 1-

17.

Canoz, Y., & Gündüz, Ş. (2022). Elektronik

ticarette lojistik hizmet kalitesi müşteri tatmini ve

müşteri sadakati bakimindan ne denli önemli? [To

what extent quality of logistics service in electronic

trade is important in terms of customer satisfaction

and loyalty?]. International Journal of

Management Economics and Business, 18(4), 1250-

1269.

Čaušević, A. (2020). Tourists’ satisfaction,

recommendation and revisiting Sarajevo. Sarajevo

Business and Economics Review (SBER), 38, 151-

166.

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded

theory: A practical guide through qualitative

analysis. Sage.

Chen, C. F., & Tsai, D. (2007). How destination

image and evaluative factors affect behavioral

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

intentions? Tourism Management, 28(4), 1115-

1122.

Cheng, C. H., Lin, S. Y., & Tsai, C. C. (2014).

Investigating consumer preferences in choosing

vegetarian restaurants using conjoint analysis.

Current Urban Studies, 2(3), 279-290.

Chow, I. H. S., Lau, V. P., Lo, T. W. C., Sha, Z., &

Yun, H. (2007). Service quality in restaurant

operations in China: Decision-and experiential-

oriented perspectives. International Journal of

Hospitality Management, 26(3), 698-710.

Christiarini, R., & Lee, H. G. (2021). Analysis of

service quality, food quality, atmosphere against

revisit intention and positive word of mouth at

casual dining restaurant in Batam City. eCo-Buss,

4(2), 230-241.

Dai, H. M., Teo, T., Rappa, N. A., & Huang, F.

(2020). Explaining Chinese university students’

continuance learning intention in the MOOC

setting: A modified expectation confirmation model

perspective. Computers & Education, 150, 103850.

Dilek, S. E., & Dilek, N. K. (2020, June 24-26).

Understanding veganism within sustainable tourism

context [Conference presentation]. IJOPEC,

Istanbul, Turkiye.

Dilek, S. E., & Fennell, D. A. (2018). Discovering

the hotel selection factors of vegetarians: The case

of Turkey. Tourism Review, 73(4), 492-506.

https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-11-2017-0175

Dixit, S. K. (2013). A study of guest’s expectation

and perception of hotel service quality: Case of

Khajuraho, India. Enlightening Tourism. A

Pathmaking Journal, 3(2), 125-141.

Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R. D., & Kollat, D. T.

(1978). Consumer behavior. Dryden Press.

Engel, J. F., Kollat, D. T., & Blackwell, R. D.

(1968). Consumer behavior. Holt, Rinehart and

Winston.

Fernandes, T., & Fernandes, F. (2018). Sharing

dissatisfaction online: Analyzing the nature and

predictors of hotel guests negative reviews. Journal

of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 27(2),

127-150.

Festinger, L. A. (1957). Theory of cognitive

dissonance. Stanford University Press.

Fox, M. A. (1999). The contribution of

vegetarianism to ecosystem health. Ecosystem

Health, 5(2), 70-74.

Fox, N., & Ward, K. (2008). Health, ethics and

environment: A qualitative study of vegetarian

motivations. Appetite, 50(2-3), 422-429.

Fraser, G. E. (2003). Diet, life expectancy and

chronic disease. Oxford University Press.

Gaard, G. (2002). Vegetarian ecofeminism: A

review essay. Frontiers: A Journal of Women

Studies, 23(3), 117-146.

Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2004). Qualitative

methods for health research. Sage.

Grimmelikhuijsen, S., & Porumbescu, G. A.

(2017). Reconsidering the expectancy

disconfirmation model. Three experimental

replications. Public Management Review, 19(9),

1272-1292.

Grix, J. (2010). The foundations of research.

Palgrave Macmillan.

Gruen, L., & Jones, R. C. (2015). Veganism as an

aspiration. In B. Bramble, & B. Smith (Ed.), The

moral complexities of eating meat (pp. 153-171).

Oxford University Press.

https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/diec

faori/2/

Güler, O., & Çağlayan, G. D. (2021). Nasıl vegan

oldum? Fenomenolojik nitel bir araştırma [How did

I become vegan? A phenomenological qualitative

research]. Journal of Contemporary Tourism

Research, 5(2), 287-304.

Gvion, L. (2023). Vegan restaurants in Israel:

Health, environmentalism and mainstreaming.

Food, Culture & Society, 26(5), 996-1013,

Hoek, A. C., Pieternel, A. L., Stafleu, A., & de

Graaf, C. (2004). Food-related lifestyle and health

of Dutch vegetarians, non-vegetarian consumers of

meat substitutes, and meat consumers. Appetite,

42(3), 265-272.

Hopwood, C. J., Bleidorn, W., Schwaba, T., &

Chen, S. (2020). Health, environmental, and animal

rights motives for vegetarian eating. PloS One,

15(4), Article e0230609.

Howard, J. A. (1963). Marketing management

analysis and planning. Richard D. Irwin.

Howard, J. A., & Sheth, J. N. (1969). The theory of

buyer behavior. John Wiley.

Hu, M., Li, H., Song, H., Li, X., & Law, R. (2022).

Tourism demand forecasting using tourist-

generated online review data. Tourism

Management, 90, 1-19.

Hui, T. K., Wan, D., & Ho, A. (2007). Tourists’

satisfaction, recommendation and revisiting

Singapore. Tourism Management, 28(4), 965-975.

Janssen, M., Busch, C., Rödiger, M., & Hamm, U.

(2016). Motives of consumers following a vegan

diet and their attitudes towards animal agriculture.

Appetite, 105, 643-651.

Jia, Y., Liu, B., & Zhang, J. (2024). Impact of

supply–demand matching on citizen satisfaction:

Analysis based on expectancy disconfirmation

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

model. Journal of Chinese Governance, 9(2), 221-

243.

Kala, D. (2020). Dimensions of a memorable food

and restaurant experience in mountainous

destinations: An interpretive structural modeling

approach. Enlightening tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, 10(2), 206-238.

Kaminski, M., Skonieczna-Zydecka, K., Nowak, J.

K., & Stachowska, E. (2020). Global and local diet

popularity rankings, their secular trends and

seasonal variation in Google trends data. Nutrition,

Nov-Dec(79-80), Article 110759.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2020.110759.

Kansanen, I. (2013). Vegan travel - The way how

vegan diet influences travel experience [Bachelor’s

thesis, Haaga-Helia University of Applied

Sciences]. Haaga-Helia University of Applied

Sciences Repository.

Kaygalak Çelebi, S., & Günlü, E. (2017, November

9-12). Vegan bloggerların turizm deneyimleri

[Tourism experiences of vegan bloggers]

[Conference presentation]. Aydın, Turkiye.

Kaytez, N., & Tunçay, G. Y. (2020). Effect of

being vegan/vegetarian on social relations

(University students sample). Çankırı Karatekin

University Journal of Institute of Social Sciences,

11(1), 210-231.

Kement, Ü., Çavuşoğlu, S., Bükey, A., Göral, M.,

& Uslu, A. (2021). Investigation of the effect of

restaurant atmosphere on behavioral intention.

Journal of Tourism and Services, 22(12), 222-242.

Kenyon, P. M., & Barker, M. E. (1998). Attitudes

towards meat eating in vegetarians and non-

vegetarian teenage girls in England – An

ethnographic approach. Appetite, 30(2), 185-198.

Key, T., Appleby, P. N., & Rosell, M. S. (2006).

Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets.

Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 65(1), 35-41.

Kumar, D., Govindarajo, N. S., & Khen, M. H. S.

(2020). Effect of service quality on visitor

satisfaction, destination image and destination

loyalty–practical, theoretical and policy

implications to avitourism. International Journal of

Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1),

83-101.

Lakho, A., Rauf, S., Khan, J., & Saleem, S. (2023).

The role of online customer testimonials in brand

trust: Utilization of the expectancy-disconfirmation

model. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 7(6),

1-18.

Lam-González, Y. E., Clouet, R., Cruz Sosa, N., &

de León, J. (2021). Dissatisfaction responses of

tourists in the Havana world heritage site.

Sustainability, 13(19), 1-16.

Lea, E., Worsley, A. (2001). Influences on meat

consumption in Australia. Appetite, 36(2), 127-136.

Lee, C. K., Yoon, Y. S., & Lee, S. K. (2007).

Investigating the relationships among perceived

value, satisfaction, and recommendations: The case

of the Korean DMZ. Tourism Management, 28(1),

204-214.

Lee, C. P., Hung, M. J., & Chen, D. Y. (2022).

Factors affecting citizen satisfaction: examining

from the perspective of the expectancy

disconfirmation theory and individual differences.

Asian Journal of Political Science, 30(1), 35-60.

Lee, K. H., Scott, N., & Packer, J. (2014). Habitus

and food lifestyle: In-destination activity

participation of slow food members. Annals of

Tourism Research, 48, 207–220.

Li, S., Liu, X. X., Cai, S., & Scott, N. (2021).

Vegan tours in China: Motivation and benefits.

International Journal of Tourism Research, 23(2),

238-252.

Lin, N. (1976). Foundation of social research.

Mcgrow-Hill.

Lochman, J., & Vágner, J. (2024). Meatless

gastronomy: A threat or an opportunity for tourism

development? Journal of Tourism Futures, 10(1),

75-86. https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-04-2023-0100

Mancı, A. R. (2022). Determining destination risk

perceptions, their effects on satisfaction, revisit and

recommendation intentions: Evidence from

Sanliurfa/Turkiye. Journal of Multidisciplinary

Academic Tourism, 7(1), 81-96.

Mannan, M., Chowdhury, N., Sarker, P., & Amir,

R. (2019). Modeling customer satisfaction and

revisit intention in Bangladeshi dining restaurants.

Journal of Modelling in Management, 14(4), 922-

947.

Margulis, S. (2003). Causes of deforestation of the

Brazilian Amazon (Working Paper No. 22). World

Bank.

https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/co

re/bitstreams/fc75c578-7b58-5419-82e9-

fdcfa8873e92/content

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing

qualitative research. Sage.

Mensah, I., & Mensah, R. D. (2018). Effects of

service quality and customer satisfaction on

repurchase intention in restaurants on University of

Cape Coast campus. Journal of Tourism, Heritage

& Services Marketing, 4(2), 27-36.

Molina-Gomez, J., Ruiz-Ruiz, M., & Mercade-

Mele, P. (2018). Vegetarian restaurants as a

determining factor of the vegetarian tourist

destination choice. European Journal of Family

Business, 8(1), 69-79.

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Najhan, N. F. S. M., Shahril, A. M., & Chang, F.

(2022). The relationship between restaurant

atmospheric and customer satisfaction: Malaysian

restaurants contexts. Advances in Business

Research International Journal, 8(1), 46-59.

Narangajavana, Y., Fiol, L. J. C., Tena, M. Á. M.,

Artola, R. M. R., & García, J. S. (2017). The

influence of social media in creating expectations.

An empirical study for a tourist destination. Annals

of Tourism Research, 65, 60-70.

Nguyen Viet, B., Dang, H. P., & Nguyen, H. H.

(2020). Revisit intention and satisfaction: The role

of destination image, perceived risk, and cultural

contact. Cogent Business & Management, 7(1), 1-

20.

Nicosia, F. M. (1966). Consumer decision

processes. Prentice‐Hall.

Nilsson, J. (2010). Consumer decision making in a

complex environment: Examining the decision

making process of socially responsible mutual fund

investors [Doctoral dissertation, Umeå University].

Digitala Vetenskapliga Arkive.

O'Reilly, M., & Parker, N. (2013). Unsatisfactory

saturation: A critical exploration of the notion of

saturated sample sizes in qualitative research.

Qualitative Research, 13(2), 190–197.

Oliver, R. L. (1981). Measurement and evaluation

of satisfaction processes in retail settings. Journal

of Retailing, 57(3), 25-48.

Oliver, R. L. A (1980). Cognitive model of the

antecedents and consequences of satisfaction

decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4),

460-469.

Olshavsky, R. W., & Miller, J. A. (1972).

Consumer expectations, product performance, and

perceived product quality. Journal of Marketing

Research, 9(1), 19-21.

Osborn, J. F. (2023, June 1). How many vegans are

in the world? Exploring the global population of

vegans. World Animal Foundation.

https://worldanimalfoundation.org/advocate/how-

many-vegans-are-in-the-world

Ottenbacher, M., Busam, S., Harrington, R. J., &

Allhoff, J. (2023). The factors impacting on the

travel experience of a vegan lifestyle. International

Hospitality Review, Vol. ahead-of-print, No. ahead-

of-print, 1-19.

Özdemir Güzel, S., & Dinçer, M. Z. (2023). The

effect of restaurant’s physical environment on

perceived value, customer satisfaction and loyalty:

Case of Istanbul. Journal of Tourism &

Gastronomy Studies, 6(4), 626–643.

Özen, İ. A. (2021). Evaluation of tourist reviews on

TripAdvisor for the protection of the world heritage

sites: Text mining approach. Journal of

Multidisciplinary Academic Tourism, 6(1), 37-46.

Özer, L. Ş. (1999). Müşteri tatminine yönelik

literatürdeki kuramsal tartışmalar [The theoretical

discussions in the literature on customer

satisfaction]. Hacettepe University Journal of

Economics and Administrative Sciences, 17(2),

159-180.

Padma, P., & Ahn, J. (2020). Guest satisfaction &

dissatisfaction in luxury hotels: An application of

big data. International Journal of Hospitality

Management, 84, 1-8.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L.

(1985). A conceptual model of service quality and

its implications for future research. Journal of

Marketing, 49(4), 41–50.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L.

(1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for

measuring consumer perceptions of service quality.

Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12–40.

Petti, A., Palmieri, B., Vadalà, M., & Laurino, C.

(2017). Vegetarianism and veganism: Not only

benefits but also gaps. A review. Progress in

Nutrition, 19(3), 229-242.

Pizam, A., & Milman, A. (1993). Predicting

satisfaction among first time visitors to a

destination by using the expectancy disconfirmation

theory. International Journal of Hospitality

Management, 12(2), 197-209.

Poore, J., & Nemecek, T. (2018). Reducing food’s

environmental impacts through producers and

consumers. Science, 360, 987–992.

Quan, S., & Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural

model of the tourist experience: An illustration

from food experiences in tourism. Tourism

Management, 25(3), 297–305.

Rathjens, B., Van Der Heide, B., Pham, D., Earle,

K., Ulusoy, E., Mason, A. J., Zhang Y., &

Bredland, A. (2023). Negative online reviews and

manager response: Applying expectancy

disconfirmation theory in a CMC context.

Communication Reports, 36(2), 110-122.

Reza Jalilvand, M., Khazaei Pool, J., Nasrolahi

Vosta, L., & Shabani Nafchali, J. (2014). The effect

of marketing constructs and tourists’ satisfaction on

loyalty to a sport destination: A structural equation

model and analysis. Education, Business and

Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 7(4),

316-332.

Rimmington, M., & Yüksel, A. (1998). Tourist

satisfaction and food service experience: Results

and implications of an empirical investigation.

Anatolia, 9(1), 37–57.

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Rosenfeld, D. L. (2018). The psychology of

vegetarianism: Recent advances and future

directions. Appetite, 131, 125-138.

Sánchez-García, I., & Currás-Pérez, R. (2011).

Effects of dissatisfaction in tourist services: The

role of anger and regret. Tourism Management,

32(6), 1397-1406.

Seetanah, B., Teeroovengadum, V., & Nunkoo, R.

(2020). Destination satisfaction and revisit intention

of tourists: Does the quality of airport services

matter? Journal of Hospitality & Tourism

Research, 44(1), 134-148.

Şencan, H. (2005). Sosyal ve davranışsal

ölçümlerde güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik [Reliability

and validity in social and behavioral measures].

Seçkin Yayıncılık.

Şengün, A. M. (2021). Elektrikli süpürge sektörü

için müşteri memnuniyeti indeksi modeli: Kısmi en

küçük karelerle yapısal eşitlik modelleme

[Customer satisfaction index model for vacuum

cleaner industry: Partial least squares structural

equation model] (Publication No. 665055)

[Master’s thesis, Istanbul Technical University].

Council of Higher Education Thesis Center.

Serenko, A., & Stach, A. (2009). The impact of

expectation disconfirmation on customer loyalty

and recommendation behavior: Investigating online

travel and tourism services. Journal of Information

Technology Management, 20(3), 26-41.

Son, A., & Xu, H. (2013). Religious food as a

tourism attraction: The roles of Buddhist temple

food in Western tourist experience. Journal of

Heritage Tourism, 8(2-3), 248-258.

Souza, L. G. S., Atkinson, A., & Montague, B.

(2020). Perceptions about veganism. The Vegan

Society and Ecologist.

https://www.vegansociety.com/sites/default/files/up

loads/downloads/Perceptions_about_Veganism%20

%28002%29.pdf

Sünnetçioğlu, S., Mercan, Ş. O., Yıldırım, H. M., &

Türkmen, S. A. (2017). Veganların eestoranlarda

karşılaştıkları sorunlar üzerine bir araştırma [A

Research on the problems of vegans compare in

restaurants]. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy

Studies, 5(2), 241-252.

Taecharungroj, V., & Mathayomchan, B. (2019).

Analysing TripAdvisor reviews of tourist

attractions in Phuket, Thailand. Tourism

Management, 75, 550-568.

Tan, C. S. (2010). Understanding consumer

purchase behavior in the Japanese personal

grooming sector. Journal of Yasar University,

17(5), 2821‐2831.

Tapınç, H. (2021, July 3). Vegan sayısı artacak.

Marketing Türkiye.

https://www.marketingturkiye.com.tr/koseyazilari/v

egan-sayisi-artacak/

The Vegan Society. (2020). Definition of veganism.

https://www.vegansociety.com/go-

vegan/definition-veganism

Tripadvisor. (2023). www.tripadvisor.com

Turkay, O., & Sengul, S. (2014). Employee

behaviors creating customer satisfaction: A

comparative case study on service encounters at a

hotel. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality

and Recreation, 5(2), 25-46.

Türker, N., & Ayyıldız, S. (2021). Yenice mutfak

kültürünün vegan mutfak kapsamında incelenmesi

[Examination of Yenice cuisine in the scope of

vegan cuisine]. Journal of Turkish Tourism

Research, 5(2), 946–968.

Ünal, S., Akkuş, G., & Akkuş, Ç. (2014). Yiyecek

içecek işletmelerinde atmosfer, duygu, memnuniyet

ve davranışsal sadakat ilişkisi [The relationship

between the atmosphere, emotion, satisfaction and

behavioral intention in the food and beverage

enterprises]. Gazi Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi

Dergisi, 1(23-49), 23-49.

Vatan, A., & Türkbaş, S. (2018). Vejetaryen turist

ve vegan turist kimdir? [Who is vegetarian tourist

and vegan tourist?]. Journal of Tourism and

Gastronomy Studies, 6(3), 24-39.

Wang, X., Zheng, J., Tang, L. R., & Luo, Y.

(2023). Recommend or not? The influence of

emotions on passengers’ intention of airline

recommendation during COVID-19. Tourism

Management, 95, 1-14.

Weber, K. (1997). The assessment of tourist

satisfaction using the expectancy disconfirmation

theory: A study of the German travel market in

Australia. Pacific Tourism Review, 1(1), 35-45.

Weiper, M. L. V., & Vonk, R. (2021). A

communicational approach to enhance open-

mindedness towards meat-refusers. Appetite, 167,

1-9.

Wu, J. Y. (2014). Everyone vegetarian, world

enriching. Open Journal of Philosophy, 4(2), 160–

165.

Xinhui, C., & Han, D. (2016). A meta-analysis of

consumer irrational purchase behavior based on

Howard-Sheth mode. Journal of Business and

Retail Management Research, 10(3), 69-80.

Yağar, F. (2023). Nitel Araştırmalarda örneklem

büyüklüğünün belirlenmesi: Veri doygunluğu

[Determining sample size in qualitative research:

Data saturation]. Aksaray University Journal of

Social Sciences Institute, 7(2), 138-152.

Ye, S., Wu, J. S., & Zheng, C. J. (2023). Are

tourists with higher expectation more sensitive to

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

service performance? Evidence from urban tourism.

Journal of Destination Marketing & Management,

12, 64-73.

Yu, J., Kim, S. S., Baah, N. G., & Han, H. (2024).

Veganism, a new hotel paradigm: exploring the

attributes of vegan-friendly hotels and guest

approach behaviors. International Journal of

Hospitality Management, 117, Article 103639.

Yu, J., Kim, S., Baah, N. G., Seo, J., & Han, H.

(2023). Influence of vegan attributes on hotel

consumption value, perceived advantages, and

word-of-mouth and revisit intentions. Journal of

Travel & Tourism Marketing, 40(8), 639-652.

Yüksel, A., & Yüksel, F. (2001). The expectancy-

disconfirmation paradigm: A critique. Journal of

Hospitality & Tourism Research, 25(2), 107-131.

Zehrer, A., Crotts, J. C., & Magnini, V. P. (2011).

The perceived usefulness of blog postings: An

extension of the expectancy-disconfirmation

paradigm. Tourism Management, 32(1), 106-113.

Zhang, L., Wei, W., Line, N. D., & Cheng, Y.

(2021). When positive reviews backfire: The effect

of review dispersion and expectation

disconfirmation on Airbnb guests’ experiences.

International Journal of Hospitality Management,

96, 1-9.

Zouni, G., & Klouvidaki, M. I. (2022). Travel

behaviour of vegetarians and vegans: Investigation

and marketing proposals to facilitate the

development of vegan food tourism. In E.

Christiou, & A. Fotiadis (Eds.), Restarting tourism,

travel and hospitality (pp. 268–277). International

Hellenic University.

Güney Çetin Gürkan is a professor of Management

and Strategy at the Department of Tourism and

Hotel Management in Trakya University. She holds

a Bachelors degree in Tourism Management from

Dokuz Eylül University (1999), a Masters degree

from Trakya University (2006) and a PhD in

Management and Organization from Istanbul

University (2012). Her research focuses on

innovation, digital transformation, and

contemporary management techniques in the

tourism industry. Dr. Gürkan has published

extensively on these topics and teaches various

courses, including digitalization and technology in

the tourism sector, human resources management,

organizational behavior at both undergraduate and

graduate levels.

Başak Özyurt is a Research Assistant in the

Department of Tourism and Hotel Management at

Trakya University. She earned her Bachelor’s

degree in Tourism and Hotel Management from

Bilkent University in 2015 and her Master’s degree

in the same field from Trakya University in 2021.

She is currently pursuing her Ph.D. in Tourism and

Hotel Management at Trakya University. Miss

Özyurt has authored numerous academic

publications, including journal articles, conference

papers, and book chapters, primarily in the field of

tourism management. Her research interests focus

on digitalization and technology in tourism, as well

as general tourism management. She also serves as

an Editorial Assistant for the Journal of Global

Education and Research (JGER). Her ORCID

number is 0000-0003-3225-0250.

Cetin- Gürkan, Güney, Özyurt, Basak; Kübra, Celıloglu Aylan. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking

Journal, Vol 15, No 1 (2025), pp. 1-25

https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v15i1.8252

Received 24 April 2024; Received in revised form 29 October 2024; Accepted 7 November 2024

Dr. Kübra Celiloğlu Aylan is an Associate

Professor in the Department of Recreation

Management in the Faculty of Tourism at the Selçuk

University. She received her PhD (2019) and MS

(2015) in Tourism Management at Selçuk University

and Bachelor’s degree in Hospitality Management

Teaching at Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University

(2012). Dr. Aylan also worked as a receptionist in

the tourism sector before working at university. Dr.

Aylan has many academic publications related to

tourism. Her research areas include responsible

tourism, recreation management and destination

marketing. She also serves on the board of referees

for a few national and international journals.