VOL. 2 (2023)

ISSN 2952-2013 pp. 1-20

https://doi.org/10.33776/linguodidactica.v2.7512

Facilitating Intercultural Communicative Competence

through a Multiliteracies approach: musical input as

the missing link

Cómo facilitar la Competencia Intercultural Comunicativa a través del

enfoque de las Multi-alfabetizaciones: el input musical como el eslabón

perdido

Antonio Fernández García

Universidad de Huelva (Spain)

Resumen:

El aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras (LE) ha experimen-

tado un cambio desde el enfoque comunicativo hacia

una pedagogía de las Multi-alfabetizaciones. En una so-

ciedad en constante cambio caracterizada por un con-

texto digital y multicultural, la necesidad de desarrollar

la Competencia Comunicativa Intercultural (CCI) en el

aprendizaje de una LE en todos los niveles educativos a

través de una pedagogía de las Multi-alfabetizaciones se

ha convertido en una prioridad. En este sentido, el apor-

te musical supone un medio ideal para explorar la cultu-

ra en el aula de LE que posibilita la integración de expe-

riencias afectivas desde una perspectiva intercultural. Las

razones para la implementación de recursos musicales

en los planes de estudio de aprendizaje de una LE para

desarrollar la ICC son dos: por un lado, puede servir para

estimular la conciencia de los estudiantes hacia la cultura

de la lengua de estudio; y, por otro lado, puede ser una

forma efectiva de involucrar a los estudiantes en encuen-

tros interculturales desde un punto de vista afectivo. Para

obtener una visión general de aquellos estudios sobre

el desarrollo de la CCI en el aprendizaje de una LE en

todos los niveles educativos a través de un enfoque de

las Multi-alfabetizaciones se ha diseñado un corpus. Los

resultados demuestran que el uso de recursos musicales

para desarrollar dicha competencia es escaso. Por lo tan-

to, este estudio busca promover actividades basadas en

recursos musicales para facilitar el desarrollo de la CCI

en el aprendizaje de una LE a través de una pedagogía

de las Multi-alfabetizaciones.

Palabras claves:

Afecto; Aprendizaje de Lenguas Extranjeras; Competen-

cia Comunicativa Intercultural; Multi-alfabetizaciones;

Música.

Fecha de aceptación: 07 de septiembre de 2023

Abstract:

Foreign Language (FL) learning has undergone a shift

away from the communicative approach and towards a

pedagogy of Multiliteracies. In an ever-changing society

characterized by a digital and multicultural context, the

necessity of developing Intercultural Communicative

Competence (ICC) in FL learning across all levels through

a pedagogy of Multiliteracies has become a priority. In

this regard, musical input is an ideal medium to explore

culture in the FL learning classroom which enables the

integration of affective experiences from an intercultural

perspective. The reasons for the implementation of musi-

cal input into FL learning curricula to develop ICC is two-

fold: on the one hand, it may serve to stimulate students’

awareness towards the target culture; and, on the other

hand, it may be an effective way to engage students in

intercultural encounters from an affective point of view.

A corpus has been designed in order to analyze those

studies on the development of ICC in FL learning across

all levels through a Multiliteracies approach. The ﬁndings

demonstrate that the use of musical input to develop ICC

in the FL learning classroom through a pedagogy of Mul-

tiliteracies is scarce. Moreover, this study seeks to pro-

mote musical input-based activities to facilitate the de-

velopment of ICC in the FL learning classroom through a

Multiliteracies pedagogy.

Keywords:

Affect; Intercultural Communicative Competence; Fo-

reign Language Learning; Multiliteracies; Music.

Fecha de recepción: 06 de julio de 2023

Facilitating Intercultural Communicative

Competence through a Multiliteracies

approach: musical input as the missing link

Cómo facilitar la Competencia Intercultural

Comunicativa a través del enfoque de las Multi-

alfabetizaciones: el input musical como el

eslabón perdido

Antonio Fernández García

Universidad de Huelva (Spain)

Contacto:

antoniofergar86@gmail.com

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Our current multicultural and digital context is inﬂuenced by the ongoing process of globalization

and the new technological advancements. This interrelatedness has contributed to paradigmatic

shifts in FL learning with respect to the role of cultural content. Although the implementation of this

cultural content into FL learning programs has long been present, this awareness is even more ur-

gent in our ever-changing societies.

It should be highlighted how the Modern Language Association Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign

Languages (2007) has fostered a more holistic approach to teaching a FL, making reference to the

importance of the integration of both literature and culture. In this regard, a lack of ICC and cultural

skills among FL students may result in an inability to transfer cultural knowledge to promote intercul-

tural communication.

Within this context, FL educators have taken on an eclectic approach to facilitate the development of

ICC, incorporating techniques and principles from different approaches. One fundamental element

has been the integration of multimodal learning into the pedagogical activities. As a consequence

of this maelstrom of techniques and pedagogical practices, a shift in the ﬁeld of FL teaching has

taken place. This pedagogical shift towards a paradigm of ICC has been inﬂuenced by the current

multicultural context in which we live today. Additionally, the way we communicate now has chan-

ged towards a more dynamic form of communication which is marked by the emergence of domains

which go beyond traditional notions of language and incorporate new ones such as images, music

or gestures. As a consequence, the digital context in which education takes place has also given way

to a consideration of a pedagogy of Multiliteracies in FL learning which, in a way, is a reaction to tra-

ditional literacy practices (New London Group, 1996). In this way, meanings are made by means of

a wide multimodal repertoire in which the written language is intertwined with oral, gestural, visual,

auditory, tactile and spatial modes. By bringing new modes of communication into the FL classroom,

we are extending the possibilities whereby students can represent multiple experiences. Undoub-

tedly, these new ways of multiple literacies are relevant to the demands of our societies nowadays.

Music is among the most useful resources in FL learning (Kennedy, 2014). Moreover, the effective use

of musical resources in the FL learning classroom is facilitated by the integration of the affective do-

main (Fonseca-Mora, et al., 2015). In this sense, developing ICC through musical resources helps FL

learners to reduce their level of anxiety when engaging in intercultural communication (Lee, 2012).

As far as affect and values are concerned, empathy constitutes one of the desirable transversal skills

in the ICC-based learning process. Not only does it play an essential role in intercultural education,

but it is also considered a life skill (Kramsch, 2011). It is noteworthy that those individuals who share

the same culture seem to perceive emotions in a similar way. This fact is of relevance in our current

multicultural context in which learners from other cultures are often at-risk of social exclusion (Dear-

dorff, 2020). It seems, then, that a possible way to bridge this cultural gap could be by considering

musical resources in the FL classroom.

Having said this, the present article offers an analysis of the multiple conceptualizations of ICC as

well as a description of its implementation into FL learning curricula. Following this, the principles

and components of the pedagogy of Multiliteracies are taken into account. Then, the relevance of

music in FL learning is discussed, highlighting its implementation into the FL learning curricula to ad-

1. Introduction

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dress intercultural issues. Finally, a corpus of studies on the development of ICC through a pedagogy

of Multiliteracies is presented.

The need for a paradigmatic shift from communicative competence to ICC has long been a major

issue in the ﬁeld of FL teaching. In fact, both educators and FL learners give priority to both langua-

ge and culture learning (Michelson & Dupuy, 2014); therefore, this awareness has put an end to the

divide that has long existed in FL learning programs.

A cultural-approach to FL learning has always been neglected, not being an overt element of the

curriculum. Therefore, an intercultural-approach to FL learning which promotes heterogeneous iden-

tities by giving voice to otherness is needed (Starkey, 2007). Similarly, a critical intercultural literacy

approach takes into account the skills necessary to deal with cultural activities through a wide range

of media in one’s own culture and that of others, reﬂecting critically on previous cultural experiences

and perspectives (Byram, 1997). According to Aliverti and Carras (2021, p. 1), “incorporating pluri-

cultural awareness as an intrinsic part of the education system can lead to intellectual and emotional

development of the students and their teachers, whose new roles should include those of cultural

communicator and intercultural mediator”.

As far as the deﬁnition of ICC is concerned, there is a range of terms which are sometimes used in-

terchangeably. Despite a lack of consensus as regards its conceptualization, we can ﬁnd a variety of

terms in the literature, such as Intercultural Competence, Intercultural Communicative Competence,

Transcultural Communication Competence or Cultural Intelligence. According to Fantini (2006, p.

12), “ICC is a complex of abilities needed to perform effectively and appropriately when interacting

with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself”. Furthermore, an intercultu-

rally-competent person is someone who is able to relate to people from other cultures, showing

interest towards their values and customs (Byram & Fleming, 1998). In the same vein, it also involves

being empathetic (Holmes & O’Neill, 2012) and being sensitive to differences in cultural meaning

(Chiu & Hong, 2005). Likewise, developing ICC means to be aware of cultural diversity, understand

other cultures and engage in affective links with other people (Beacco et al., 2016). As can be obser-

ved, deﬁnitions of ICC include both cognitive and affective elements. In a way, the ability to unders-

tand and see other cultures from a universal perspective may lead to a personal and social fulﬁlment,

therefore fostering tolerance and respect. Thus, engaging students in intercultural activities so that

they can relate to, empathize and understand otherness is a key element in the development of ICC.

Since taking a cultural stance on FL learning normally involves considering things through the eyes

of others, affectivity should also be regarded as an essential component of ICC, especially because

empathy has been linked to successful communication in FL learning. In this regard, empathy can be

deﬁned as being “in tune with another’s mood, emotions and experiences” (Richmond, 1999, p. 37).

Research has demonstrated the connection between pluricultural competence and cultural empathy

(Dewaele & van Oudenhoven, 2009). In this regard, the importance of cultural empathy and authen-

ticity in FL teaching have been considered as pillars in the construction and negotiation of meaning.

Similarly, developing ethnocultural empathy involves fostering mutual understanding between di-

fferent ethnic and racial groups from a cognitive and an affective perspective (Wang et al., 2003).

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Towards an intercultural approach

in FL learning

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By contrast, a culturally-alienated individual is someone who shows a lack of interest towards other

cultures (Krishnappa, 2020).

Other studies have attempted to provide theoretical foundation aimed at providing some guidance

on how to incorporate interculturality into FL learning curricula (Santos-Sopena & Antolín, 2022).

Likewise, a growing number of studies have investigated the impact of a myriad of resources on

students’ ICC. Arts and literature have been of interest to sensitize students towards other cultures

in the higher education context (Porto & Zembylas, 2020). Bagui and Adder (2020) explored how

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers used literary texts of the English culture to foster em-

pathy as well as tolerance. Previous studies have highlighted the impact of incorporating comics into

the curricula to bridge the gap between real and school life (Morrison et al., 2002).

Moreover, Lindner and Méndez (2014) demonstrated the positive effect of an intercultural visual

approach on students’ critical cultural awareness. This study highlights the importance of promoting

an enhanced image of others in culturally diverse contexts. Additionally, ﬁlms are powerful media to

bring foreign culture to the classroom and, consequently, develop students’ cross-cultural compe-

tence (Chao, 2013). In addition to this, TV reality shows have also served to approach cultural empa-

thy in the FL classroom, as these formats often offer a form of realistic representation with which lear-

ners may relate, experiencing the same emotions or familiar situations (Lasa-Álvarez, 2017). Apart

from visual resources, research has demonstrated how students are more likely to understand the

cultural background of the target language when they are exposed to song lyrics which can foster a

better understanding of cultural references (Kennedy, 2014).

Overall, the current educational context has evolved towards a scenario in which individuals are

citizens of the world who share cultural experiences through various resources. In addition, techno-

logical advances mean that these experiences take place from multiple points of view.

The gradual loss of inﬂuence of the old methods in the evolution of FL teaching approaches has giv-

en way to the appearance of new techniques and methodologies. In addition, due to the pervasive

dichotomy between language learning and content that has ever existed in the education system, a

paradigm shift has occurred aimed at bridging the gap between the language-content divide (Men-

ke & Paesani, 2018). This shift has a pedagogy of Multiliteracies at the centre of collegiate curricular

programmes (Paesani & Allen, 2012). This pedagogy goes beyond the traditional notion of literacy

and stresses the role of context, tools and skills for making new meanings (Kalantzis & Cope, 2016;

New London Group, 1996). In addition, it recognizes several semiotic modes, that is, linguistic, audi-

tory, visual, gestural and spatial. Thus, meaning is possible through the integration of these modes

of communication (Cope et al., 2017).

The changes in literacy towards an appreciation of its social situatedness has made this shift possible

from an individual behaviour to a social and cultural one. By considering these social and cultural

aspects, a critical approach towards FL learning can be adopted. This critical view is grounded in the

principles of the Critical pedagogy, which aims to encourage students to challenge dominant social

and cultural beliefs (McLaren, 2003). Furthermore, this consideration of linguistic and cultural diver-

2.2. Multimodality and Multiliteracies practices

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sity leads us to take into account “the burgeoning variety of text forms associated with information

and multimedia technologies” (New London Group, 2000, p. 9). As Starkey (2007) puts it, an inter-

cultural focus on FL education may “undermine narratives of citizenship that promote monolithic,

homogenous national identities as the sole possible sense of belonging” (p.56).

The main curricular components as established in a pedagogy of Multiliteracies consist of Situated

practice, in which students engage in authentic and meaningful experiences through which they

share their own lived experiences; Overt instruction, in which a fundamental element is to view texts

as participants instead of the goal of an activity while making concepts explicit so that students can

achieve control of their own learning process; Critical framing, which encourages students’ agen-

cy in the construction of meaning as they analyse the contents they need to learn, taking a critical

approach in relation to the “historical, social, cultural, political, ideological, and value-centered rela-

tions of particular systems of knowledge and social practice” (New London Group, 2000, p. 1); and

Transformed practice, which refers to the application of content in new contexts by transforming

already available meanings into new meanings.

During this process of meaning-making, students draw on available texts to design new meanings,

giving way to redesigned multimodal texts. The New London Group (1996) suggested that the con-

struction of meaning should consist of a series of processes, whereby we draw on Available Designs

to create Redesigned texts, thus engaging students in a dynamic process of negotiation. Therefore,

this pedagogy is oriented towards developing students’ capacity to think critically and make new

meanings out of a variety of texts. In the process of meaning-making, students are guided through

a series of knowledge processes, namely experiencing, conceptualising, analysing and applying,

which integrate language forms with the authenticity of texts and which are a reformulation of the

original four curricular components of Situated practice, Overt instruction, Critical framing and Trans-

formed practice (Kalantzis & Cope, 2016; New London Group, 1996). These knowledge processes

are to be conceived as part “of a complete pedagogy that may be implemented in whatever order

best meets students’ literacy needs” (Paesani, 2016, p. 123).

By developing an understanding of the main curricular components and principles that constitute

the pedagogy of Multiliteracies, it is possible for FL educators to plan lessons aimed at facilitating

students’ ICC. Likewise, it is essential for FL educators to understand the signiﬁcance of providing

students with a wide variety of modes of communication. In addition to this, we can ﬁnd a myriad

of pedagogical resources which may help educators to introduce intercultural communicative ac-

tivities into the classroom. For instance, music has been a useful pedagogical resource to engage

students in lively class discussions on cultural topics.

Music, like language, is regarded as a means of communication. Music can be found in every culture

and it has been used in FL teaching in order to introduce students to the culture of the target langua-

ges. In this regard, “by knowing about other ethnic groups’ values, their traditions, and their artistic

and musical expressions, children will also come to know the world’s people better” (Campbell &

Scott-Kassner, 2019, p. 385). Since musical representations in the target language may help to look

deeper into the cultural aspects of different societies, incorporating music by means of songs, song

2.3. Music-mediated cultural experiences in

the FL classroom

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lyrics, music videos or any other musical input with cultural representation into the FL classroom may

lure students to take part in intercultural communicative activities willingly.

Previous research has demonstrated how songs serve as an ideal resource to develop ICC in the FL

classroom, allowing students to show interest towards the culture of the target language (Shaiakh-

metova et al., 2017). According to Schippers (2010), engaging in a musical analysis of cultural tra-

ditions may result in the construction of meaning from different multiple views. Luo and Gao (2022)

carried out a study in which students from the U.S.A. and China discussed relevant cultural issues

through songs in their languages with similar themes. As a result, the students in this study develo-

ped their ICC, especially their interest in knowing each other’s culture.

A growing body of research has explored the relevance of song lyrics as authentic materials in de-

veloping ICC in FL learning. For example, the theme of some song lyrics can also be considered as

authentic material. Murphey (1992) highlights the possibility that they present to be interpreted as

an open system without a closed meaning, allowing students to get involved in the process of narra-

tion and transmission of ideas, giving free rein to their emotions and imagination. Some song lyrics

have a profound meaning and offer varied information about a particular culture. Pan (2021) carried

out a study in which students could expand their knowledge of a different culture and show respect

through Cantonese songs.

Music has been regarded as a resource for social and cultural cohesion (Kelly, 2016). Additionally,

a further argument in support of using music in the FL classroom is that it contributes to the cons-

truction of identity among adolescents. For this reason, educators should be aware of certain songs

which may transmit radical messages through its lyrics. Some urban song lyrics may include discri-

minatory messages, having a negative impact on students’ socioemotional development (González

& Delgado-García, 2022). Raising awareness about the consequences of these song lyrics on issues

about gender violence or discrimination against people from other cultures is essential in intercul-

tural communicative activities.

Exploiting audio-visual resources in the FL learning classroom to teach ICC also provides students

with multimodal experiences which are highly motivational. In this regard, learners have the oppor-

tunity to perceive other paralinguistic features, such as body movements, facial expressions or ges-

tures. Consequently, linguistic and cultural references through different media make these didactic

tools “the equivalent of a portable immersion experience” (Siddell, 2011, p. 43). In addition, these

resources may even display authentic interactions through highly-emotional narratives, taking into

account that paralinguistic elements may differ from one culture to another (Dewaele, 2011). Co-

res-Bilbao et al. (2019) demonstrated how a music video-mediated experience in the context of

adult FL learning can facilitate the development of their interpersonal and collaborative skills. Con-

sequently, it can be said that musical activities give rise to a variety of opportunities for mediation,

providing students with communicative possibilities in which they can develop their intercultural

and socio-emotional skills.

Previous research has provided insight into the link between music and affect, suggesting that im-

plementing activities based on musical and affective input may motivate students in cultural com-

municative activities. Working with songs in the FL classroom can develop students’ analytical skills,

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allowing them to identify key themes behind their lyrics or empathize with the persona created

speciﬁcally in the songs (Kennedy, 2014). In the same vein, it has been demonstrated how demo-

cratic values can also be taught through music videos (Sánchez-Vizcaino, 2022). Moreover, it seems

that those FL learners who are capable of understanding emotions across different situations have a

stronger emotional response to music (Fernández-García & Fonseca-Mora, 2022). This is especially

important concerning certain affect-laden song lyrics which may serve as effective tools to approach

emotions and values from a cultural point of view.

To sum up, engaging FL learners in musical activities may be beneﬁcial in their learning process,

especially in communicative intercultural activities. In fact, learners may ﬁnd a source of emotional

relief in auditory and audio-visual resources; therefore, motivating them to get involved in intercul-

tural encounters by means of authentic materials from other cultures.

Once the existing body of literature on the development of ICC in FL learning, the main characteris-

tics of the Multiliteracies pedagogy and the effectiveness of musical resources in the FL classroom

have been reviewed, we proceed to describe the methodology that has been used in the present

study. In the ﬁrst place, the objectives that have guided this research will be formulated. Next, a

corpus of studies related to teaching ICC in FL learning will be presented, with special emphasis on

the analysis of the pedagogical approach, the educational resources used to achieve this purpose,

as well as the socio-emotional elements. This will allow us to better understand whether there are

studies that have focused on the development of ICC through musical input.

The principal goal of this study is to offer an analysis of those studies on the development of ICC in

FL learning through a Multiliteracies approach as established by the New London Group (1996) and

revised by Kalantzis and Cope (2016) by means of their Learning by Design project. In order to do

so, a corpus has been created to analyze the different pedagogical resources that have been used

to facilitate ICC in the FL classroom across all levels, with special interest in any musical representa-

tion. This study seeks to highlight the importance of intercultural communicative activities based on

musical input to facilitate the development of ICC in FL learning.

In this regard, addressing the teaching of ICC based on musical input through a pedagogy of Multi-

literacies may assist FL educators to better engage learners in cultural experiences while promoting

meaning-making. In order to achieve this, the current multicultural and digital context is taken into

account. Furthermore, it is necessary to frame this context considering the pedagogical use of musi-

cal resources in FL teaching, with special emphasis on their connection with emotions. It is expected

that this study better illuminates cultural dimensions of literate activity through musical and affective

experiences in the FL learning classroom. For this reason, a corpus was created and analysed using

a variety of methods, including qualitative and quantitative analysis. On the one hand, qualitative

analysis was used to identify the types of pedagogical resources employed to facilitate ICC in the FL

classroom, as well as the ways in which these resources were used with regard to the principles of

3. Methods

3. 1. Objectives

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the pedagogy of Multiliteracies. On the other hand, quantitative analysis was used to measure the

frequency of these resources as well as the presence of values and affect.

The present corpus is an extension of the systematic review on the development of Intercultural Com-

petence in adult FL learning through a pedagogy of Multiliteracies (Fernández-García & Sánchez-Viz-

caíno, forthcoming). Although this systematic review focused mainly on adult FL learning, the scope in

this study is broader, as it includes all stages. Moreover, this study aims to determine whether musical

input is employed in FL classrooms to foster ICC. The ﬁrst phase of this study involved the selection of

the studies which make up the corpus. Thus, a total of 10 studies have been retrieved from different

databases (Scopus, Web of Science and ERIC) and a summary is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Corpus of studies on the development of ICC across all educational levels through a pedagogy of Multiliteracies.

Author Educational

level Target language Pedagogical resources

Fukunaga

(2006) University

Undergraduate English students

of Japanese as a Foreign Lan-

guage

Japanese Animation

Guth and Helm

(2011) University Undergraduate students of EFL

from Germany and Italy

Multimodal texts (intercultural encounters

through social networks)

Rajendram and

Govindarajoo (2016) University Multilingual participants from Ma-

laysia who study EFL Literature texts

Sagnier

(2016) University English students who study French

as a Foreign Language Cultural narratives

Michelson

(2017) University

English students who study French

as a Foreign Language Multimodal texts (books, games, laws, etc.)

Liu

(2019) High school EFL learners in Chinese high

schools

Science ﬁction ﬁlms

Amgott

(2020) University

American undergraduates who

study French as a Foreign Lan-

guage

Multimodal texts (Blogs, Vlogs, Flipgrid, etc.)

Linares and Blocker

(2021) University English students who study French

as a Foreign Language Academic texts

Mohammed-Ahmed

(2021) University Unspeciﬁed target language

Multimodal texts (Messaging through social

media and email; use of pictures, animated

images or videos)

Ryshina-Pankova et al.

(2021) University German Narrative texts

Source: Own elaboration.

3. 2. Corpus of studies on the development of

ICC through a pedagogy of Multiliteracies

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Both empirical and conceptual studies based on a series of inclusion criteria were selected. These

criteria included studies on the development of ICC in a FL through a pedagogy of Multiliteracies

across all educational levels. Different databases such as ERIC, Scopus or Web of Science were

searched using the keywords ‘Foreign language learning’, ‘Intercultural Communicative Compe-

tence’ and ‘Multiliteracies’. For the purposes of this corpus, only those studies which followed the

main components of the pedagogy of Multiliteracies were taken into account. Therefore, the studies

which only mentioned these principles but the pedagogical activities were not developed accor-

ding to the curricular components of this pedagogy were not considered for the present corpus. A

deeper insight into the nature of the pedagogical activities of each study was expected by analyzing

them following the original curricular components as established by the New London Group (2000)

as well as the knowledge processes suggested by Kalantzis and Cope (2016).

Once the studies were selected, a series of quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out.

First, the principal focus was on the main characteristics of the study designs with regard to the im-

plementation of the curricular components of the Multiliteracies pedagogy into the pedagogical

activities. Then, these studies were examined according to the pedagogical resources or materials

employed to develop ICC. Finally, special emphasis was placed on the incorporation of values and

affect in such pedagogical activities, since affectivity is an essential component of this competence.

A synthesis of results and characteristics of the studies included in the corpus is now displayed. Al-

though it is assumed that the principles of a Multiliteracies approach were used in each study, a brief

description of how these have been implemented into the pedagogical activities will be given. In

addition to this, the analysis of the didactic resources which have been employed as well as a des-

cription of the integration of socioemotional aspects will also be provided.

As far as the principles of the Multiliteracies pedagogy are concerned, Michelson (2017) guided stu-

dents’ engagement with texts through the curricular components of the Multiliteracies pedagogy,

namely Situated practice, Overt instruction, Critical framing, and Transformed practice. These prac-

tices crystallized in the ﬁnal portfolio reﬂections which students had to complete as a synthesis of

their cultural experience using a Global simulation approach in which they had to adopt a ﬁctitious

character of the French culture. Mohammed-Ahmed (2021) perfectly exempliﬁed a cultural expe-

rience through this approach by providing a series of cases which reﬂect the steps to follow and

the activities which are implemented into his classes. Linares and Blocker (2021) drew on the princi-

ples of the Multiliteracies pedagogy to engage students in academic discursive practices. This was

mainly achieved by following the steps of this pedagogy whereby available texts are redesigned to

constitute available designs. Likewise, Ryshina-Pankova et al. (2021) described a cultural experience

through narrative texts following the principles of this pedagogy. These texts consisted of authentic

German stories which enabled students to broaden their notion of diversity in the culture of the

target language.

Moreover, Amgott (2020) made reference to other principles such as translanguaging or multimo-

dality. In another study, EFL students from a Chinese high school engaged in discussions of societal

and cultural topics (Liu, 2019). This study aimed to develop students’ critical skills and visual skills,

4. Results

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too. Furthermore, Sagnier (2016) stressed the importance of allowing students to make connections

between textural narratives and other forms of cultural expression through the knowledge processes

of experiencing, conceptualizing, analysing and applying. In doing so, students were able to deve-

lop the necessary skills to generate new ideas and think critically about different cultural narratives.

Although the main purpose of the study performed by Rajendram and Govindarajoo (2016) was

to explore how the multimodal design of literature texts through ﬁlms in learners’ L1 instead of

English make a difference in their aesthetic and critical responses, the results showed that it also

increased students’ intercultural understanding. As different languages were used in the process

of ﬁlm-making, some students reported that they “understood other cultures better after ﬁnishing

this video project” (Rajendram & Govindarajoo, 2016, p. 61). In this particular case, the students had

the opportunity to learn the language of the ethnic minority and know more about their culture. In

the same vein, Guth and Helm (2011) highlighted how ICC can be developed through internet-me-

diated intercultural exchanges. These exchanges involved undergraduate students of EFL from uni-

versities in Germany and Italy. Finally, Fukunaga (2006) pointed out some important aspects of the

Multiliteracies pedagogy while developing ICC and observed that learners can also take a critical

stance while learning a FL.

With respect to the didactic resources, some studies employed multimodal texts (Amgott, 2020;

Guth & Helm, 2011; Michelson, 2017; Mohammed-Ahmed, 2021). Thus, Mohammed-Ahmed (2021)

made use of different authentic resources, such as pictures, voice messages or animated images.

Guth and Helm (2011) used interviews through Skype and explored telecollaboration through

forums and social networks. Likewise, students described their experiences on their journals. Mo-

reover, Amgott (2020) employed a series of multimodal resources like vlogs, blogs or Flipgrid to

analyse videos in which students reﬂected on their cultural and linguistic experiences. Furthermore,

these multiple experiences enabled students to develop multilingual identities. In the study carried

out by Michelson (2017), students were asked to select artefacts which represent the culture of the

target language, such as books, laws or games.

Other studies included narrative texts as the mail pedagogical resources. Rajendram and Govinda-

rajoo (2016) employed literature texts which students used to design a multimodal text through ﬁlm.

Similarly, Ryshina-Pankova et al. (2021) made use of a selection of German narrative texts to provi-

de learners with a critical lens to analyse narrative structures and language use of certain regional

cultures. Likewise, Sagnier (2016) chose cultural narratives as the main source to promote cultural

experiences in the FL classroom.

Liu (2019) employed science ﬁction ﬁlms to develop ICC in the classroom. Linares and Blocker (2021)

used academic texts, whereas Fukunaga (2016) used Japanese animation as the main didactic tool.

This allowed students to enhance their knowledge of Japanese culture while paying attention to

other elements, such as non-verbal gestures or social settings. The proportion of pedagogical re-

sources based on the studies included in the corpus is presented in Graph 1.

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Graph 1. Pedagogical resources.

Source: own elaboration.

The analysis of the representation of values and affect in the studies that make up the corpus was ca-

rried out taking into account the following elements. In the ﬁrst place, cultural empathy is regarded

as one of the fundamental aspects during any intercultural exchange, especially because it has been

associated with successful communication in FL learning. Also, students’ reﬂections on their feelings

and levels of anxiety during the activities was also considered. According to Lee (2012), engaging

in intercultural communication reduces the levels of anxiety. Additionally, any representation of the

so-called ‘soft skills’, such as teamwork, active listening or resilience, was also taken into account.

Having said this, Guth and Helm (2011) informed of their students’ affective states as they comple-

ted the tasks. Likewise, Rajendram and Govindarajoo (2016) highlighted in their study that students’

aesthetic responses reﬂected their affective experiences with respect to their engagement with lite-

rature texts. In addition, some considerations towards the emotions or values transmitted through

the texts were also made. With respect to this, Rajendram and Govindarajoo (2016, p. 61) add “stu-

dents used words in their L1 that were more emotionally loaded than their English counterparts. This

could also point to the enhanced personal meaningfulness of the story, and the stronger emotional

reactions it stirred when translated into students’ L1”.

Other representations of values and affect can be found in the study performed by Fukunaga (2006),

who pinpoints that the students seem to experience less anxiety about studying Japanese which

enables them to enjoy while they are learning this language. Similarly, Amgott (2020) analysed the

emotional experiences as described by the students who participated in cultural exchanges throu-

gh their vlogs. Moreover, attention to affect is achieved through narratives in which sympathy and

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empathy are evoked (Ryshina-Pankova et al., 2021). Linares and Blocker (2021) used academic texts

from the target culture to challenge students’ understanding of what developing literacy in FL lear-

ning involves. This enabled them to approach French culture from a space of reﬂection on how to

become empathic citizens. Likewise, Michelson (2017) included affect through the process of adop-

ting the persona of a ﬁctitious character of the target culture, whereby students had to reﬂect on

values and feelings as they completed a portfolio with their beliefs and attitudes.

By contrast, no mention to affectivity could be found in the study performed by Mohammed-Ahmed

(2021) or Sagnier (2016). Likewise, the study carried out by Liu (2019) had no reference to affective

factors during the implementation of the pedagogical activities. Graph 2 illustrates the proportion

of studies which include values and affect in their study design.

Graph 2. Implementation of values and affect.

Source: own elaboration.

As can be observed, the data revealed that 70% of the studies included a description of how values

and affect are represented. Conversely, those studies with no representation of affective elements

during the cultural activities accounted for 30% of the corpus. The ﬁndings of this corpus will also

serve to highlight the necessity to incorporate intercultural communicative activities based on affec-

tive input into the FL learning curricula.

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The incorporation of new media into FL learning curricula enables students to consider cultural

issues from the point of view of global citizens. Among the many pedagogical resources that have

been employed in order to engage students in intercultural communicative activities, music has

been regarded as an effective tool. By analyzing a corpus made up of studies on ICC through a

pedagogy of Multiliteracies allowed us to determine whether musical input-based resources have

been used to facilitate the development of students’ ICC.

First of all, the present study has attempted to describe the main characteristics of ICC in FL lear-

ning. This allowed us to better understand the concept from different perspectives, especially from

an affective dimension. It is noteworthy that implementing authentic materials into the FL classroom

is an essential part in the students’ cultural experiences. Next, the main components of the Multi-

literacies pedagogy with an emphasis on the pervasiveness of multimodality in FL learning were

analyzed. Then, a series of pedagogical resources used in intercultural communicative activities in

the FL classroom were described.

On the basis of the data provided by the corpus, we can say that all of the studies have the curricular

components of the Multiliteracies pedagogy as a reference. In addition to this, a thorough analysis

of the main principles of this pedagogy, such as multimodality or translanguaging, have also been

provided. Having said this, we can conﬁrm that the pedagogical activities included in these studies

take the curricular components of this approach into account and urge students to take a critical

stance while completing their ﬁnal tasks. In addition, the results point to an increasing interest in the

pedagogy of Multiliteracies to teach ICC in FL learning, since the majority of the studies have been

published over the last ﬁve years.

The corpus of the present study has served to determine the different pedagogical resources that

have been employed to teach ICC in FL learning across all levels. Thus, the results showed that most

of the studies included multimodal texts as the main pedagogical resources such as intercultural

encounters through social networks (Guth & Helm, 2011), video-making platforms (Amgott, 2020),

or videos and messaging through social media (Mohammed-Ahmed, 2021). By contrast, 30% of the

studies employed narrative texts (Rajendram & Govindarajoo, 2016; Ryshina-Pankova et al., 2021;

Sagnier, 2016), whereas 10% of the studies used ﬁlms (Liu, 2019), animation (Fukunaga, 2006) and

academic texts (Linares & Blocker, 2021) as their main pedagogical resources. Nonetheless, any

type of musical representation is non-existent. This suggest that there are still some resources and

modes of communication which are misrepresented in the literature with regard to the incorpora-

tion of a Multiliteracies pedagogy into FL learning curricula.

Although different studies informed of the beneﬁts of using musical input in FL classrooms to ad-

dress cultural issues (Gao, 2022; Pan, 2021; Shaiakhmetova et al., 2017), this resource was not sufﬁ-

ciently employed following the components of the Multiliteracies pedagogy. Thus, the analysis of

the corpus suggests that the use of musical input should be employed in intercultural communi-

cative activities. The lack of studies on the development of ICC through musical input considering

a Multiliteracies approach may be due to the fact that no model or comprehensive analysis have

been carried out. Therefore, future research should consider the effectiveness of musical input to

contribute to the development of ICC in the FL classroom through this pedagogy. The importance

5. Discussion and Conclusions

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of creating multimodal and cultural opportunities in the FL classroom would be even greater if we

consider the myriad of musical resources that exist. In addition to this, a corpus of songs with cultural

and affective meaning would be a starting point to engage students in social and cultural activities.

Another fundamental ﬁnding was the representation of values and affect in the classroom activities

of these studies. The results corroborate that affectivity is mostly represented when developing ICC

in FL classrooms. Thus, 70% of the studies included a description or analysis of how values and

emotions have been implemented into the pedagogical activities while promoting ICC in the FL

classroom. This is in line with those studies which have shown the relationship between intercultural

competence and affective factors (Dewaele & van Oudenhoven, 2099; Wang et al, 2003). However,

those studies with no representation of affective elements constitute 30% of the corpus. Considering

that developing affective skills is a fundamental part of ICC, futures studies should take them into ac-

count for a full cultural experience, especially those related to students’ resilience and self-efﬁcacy.

In this sense, educators should strive to create an affective and warm environment where students

feel comfortable expressing their own cultural identities and show respect to students of different

backgrounds.

Within the limits of this contribution, two major issues stand out. In the ﬁrst place, musical input is still

underexplored as an effective tool to facilitate the development of ICC in FL learning. The fact that

music shares many apparent analogies with language with respect to prosodic elements is sufﬁcient

to consider it in learning. Songs and music videos are breakers of cultural barriers, being capable

of gathering people from other cultures together. Furthermore, we may also ﬁnd cultural contents

in song lyrics with which students can easily relate, making it possible to experience a real cultural

encounter in the classroom (Kennedy, 2014). Additionally, the latest technological advances have

resulted in an improvement in the learning-teaching process which have also given way to new lan-

guage learning methodologies, allowing to adopt a multimodal approach whereby FL learners are

exposed to a reality mediated by a myriad of digital tools (New London Group, 2000). In addition,

this has also made it possible to bring cultural diversity closer to FL learners by means of auditory

and audiovisual resources which are, in fact, effective motivators among students who engage in in-

tercultural communicative encounters. Furthermore, this may also have implications for the students’

cognitive development, since they ﬁrst need to understand their own culture and how it shapes their

values and beliefs. As a consequence, this will help them to recognize and appreciate the differen-

ces between their own culture and those of others.

In the second place, the interplay between music and emotion has been exploited in the FL class-

room to motivate students. In particular, it has been very effective to explore intercultural encoun-

ters and engage students in intercultural communicative activities (Siddell, 2011). Thus, intercultural

communicative activities based on highly-emotional lyrics and mediated by audio-visual resources

may be a starting point to motivate students (Cores-Bilbao et al., 2019). Having said this, educators

should take advantage of the available resources to encourage students to participate in intercul-

tural communicative activities and produce new meanings based on authentic experiences. Prior to

this, it is convenient to provide students with a wide repertoire of the emotional lexicon of the target

language so that they can communicate their feelings towards the cultural experiences which take

place during their learning process.

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In conclusion, relying on the results of the corpus it is assumed that a model which guides FL educa-

tors to develop ICC through musical input-based activities, taking into account the curricular com-

ponents and the knowledge processes involved in the Multiliteracies pedagogy is necessary. Imple-

menting musical input into the FL classroom has become a necessity nowadays, especially because

FL educators can exploit this resource in many different ways; therefore, creating a multimodal ex-

perience to work with culture-related topics. In this sense, students would explore more authentic

experiences inside the classroom as a complex of multimodal elements, since musical activities may

act as engaging content which give students a wide range of opportunities to participate in cultural

discussions as global citizens. Additionally, educators would create a pleasant and affective atmos-

phere in the classroom where students feel motivated to think critically about cultural issues. This is

particularly the case of any musical resource, as music is regarded as a source of emotional relief and

an effective means to foster cultural bonds.

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This study was supported by the R + D project Multiliteracies for adult at-risk learners of addition-

al languages (MultiLits) (PID2020-113460RB-100), funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033.

[Esta publicación forma parte del Proyecto de I+D+i Multiliteracies for adult at-risk learners of addi-

tional languages (MultiLits), REF. PID2020-113460RB-I00, ﬁnanciado por el Ministerio de Ciencia e

Innovación y Agencia Estatal de Investigación MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033/]

Financing