VOL. 2 (2023)
ISSN 2952-2013 pp. 89-104
https://doi.org/10.33776/linguodidactica.v2.7734
Study of English self-learning perceptions throughout
video games of narrative and fantasy
Estudio de las percepciones del autoaprendizaje del inglés a través de
videojuegos de narrativa y fantasía
Fernando Rubio-Alcalá
University of Huelva (Spain)
Stella Hadjistassou
University of Cyprus (Cyprus)
Manuel Ferrero-Rodríguez
University of Huelva (Spain)
Resumen:
Los jóvenes pasan mucho tiempo jugando a los video-
juegos. Dado que el inglés es un idioma internacional, la
mayoría de los juegos se producen en inglés y los usua-
rios, en nuestro caso los hablantes no nativos, tienen que
inferir significados por sí mismos al interactuar con los
controles, acciones, imágenes, textos y otros elementos
paralingüísticos. Los videojuegos narrativos y de fanta-
sía pueden contener un corpus lingüístico de más de
20.000 palabras con las que los jugadores tienen que
hacer frente para comprender y progresar en el juego.
En este proceso, puede ocurrir un aprendizaje no inten-
cional. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar si los
jugadores son conscientes del aprendizaje de idiomas
y si jugar videojuegos narrativos y de fantasía conduce
al éxito lingüístico a largo plazo. 458 sujetos completa-
ron un cuestionario ad hoc en línea que abordaba varios
aspectos del aprendizaje de idiomas. Los resultados in-
dicaron que jugar videojuegos narrativos y de fantasía
puede ser una forma efectiva de aprender vocabulario
y que los términos aprendidos se pueden recordar en la
memoria a largo plazo.
Palabras claves:
autoaprendizaje; autopercepción; fantasía; inglés; narra-
tiva; videojuegos
Fecha de aceptación: 05 de septiembre de 2023
Abstract:
Young people spend a considerable amount of time pla-
ying video games. As English is an international langua-
ge, most games are developed in English. Users, who
are often non-native speakers have to infer meanings by
interacting with the controls, actions, artifacts, texts, and
other paralinguistic elements. Narrative and fantasy vi-
deo games can contain linguistic corpora of more than
20,000 words that players have to grapple with in order
to understand the principles of the game, actions, and
strategically determine their next steps to progress in the
game. In this process, learners may engage in incidental
learning. The aim of this study was to determine whether
players are aware of language learning as it emerges
while participating in these game-based activities and
whether playing narrative and fantasy video games can
lead to long-term language success. Four hundred and
fifty-eight subjects completed an online ad hoc ques-
tionnaire addressing various areas of language learning
while playing video games. The results indicated that pla-
ying narrative and fantasy video games can be an effec-
tive way to learn vocabulary and that the newly acquired
terms can be stored in long-term memory.
Keywords:
English; fantasy; narrative; self-learning; self-percep-
tion; video games
Fecha de recepción: 04 de julio de 2023
Study of English self-learning perceptions
throughout video games of narrative and
fantasy
Estudio de las percepciones del autoaprendizaje
del inglés a través de videojuegos de narrativa y
fantasía
Fernando Rubio-Alcalá
University of Huelva (Spain)
Stella Hadjistassou
University of Cyprus (Cyprus)
Manuel Ferrero-Rodríguez
University of Huelva (Spain)
Contacto:
fernando.rubio@dfing.uhu.es
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1. Introduction Video games are often considered as either a leisure or a recreational activity for entertainment
and fun. At the same time, it is also a cause of concern for parents and educators as children and
teenagers spend a considerable amount of time playing games (Cummins et al., 2007). According
to Gómez-Gonzalvo et al. (2020), adolescents now spend an average of almost one hour per day in
front of a screen playing video games, which prevents them from engaging in other cognitive and
physical activities. On the other hand, video games are also perceived as beneficial in some res-
pects, for example, for language learning, problem-solving, collaboration, interaction, and critical
learning (see Gee, 2003; 2005; 2007; deHaan et al., 2010; Newcombe and Brick, 2017). DeHaan et
al. (2010) identify interactivity as the “fundamental characteristic” of video games (p. 74). The peda-
gogical and technological implications of video games have received considerable attention, with
scholars striving to look beyond the entertainment purposes of video games (see Deterding et al.,
2011). Multiple studies have also delved into the role of games in language learning (see Reinhardt,
2019; Thorne and Fischer, 2012; deHaan et al., 2010; Piirainen-Marsh and Tainio, 2009). This study
explores the potentiality of learning English as a foreign language, such as vocabulary development,
by playing narrative and fantasy video games.
Video games may enact affordances for an additional source for language learning in non-formal
environments, in which learning takes place ubiquitously or incidentally beyond the traditional ins-
titutional learning context. Players engaged in games experience learning in distinctive contexts
and “situate the meanings of words, images, symbols, artifacts, and so forth when operating within
specific situations in new semiotic domains” (Gee, 2003, p. 39). The prime objective of playing narra-
tive and fantasy video games is to reach a goal by engaging with multimodal context, such as using
language to comprehend instructions, complete tasks, compete, progress in the game, and create
new meaning. However, second or foreign language learning is neither the primary aim nor the ob-
jective of most video games. This study aims also to investigate the role games in retaining specific
language items in long-term memory.
As Oxford (2006, p. 103) postulates “the widespread presence of games and videogames on the
Internet creates additional input possibilities”. Further, they can enact affordances for language lear-
ning and promote interaction with multiple modes of communication and semiotic resources (see
Gee, 2003; 2007). Video games can also help language learners enhance their motivation, enga-
gement, and participation in meaning-making activities (Ebrahimzadeh and Alavi, 2017). Moreover,
video games can contribute to the development and enhancement of language skills, Specifically,
Chen and Yang’s study (2013) demonstrates that adventure video games can help college students
enhance their listening, reading, and vocabulary skills in English, and enhance their motivation.
Some other studies have focused on examining the difference genres of video games and their ped-
agogical implications. For instance, Lee (2008) found that simulation and role-play games are more
effective than virtual pet games in facilitating second/foreign language learning. Similarly, Chen and
Yang (2013) demonstrate that adventure video games may lead to an improvement in language
skills and motivation.
2. Theoretical Framework
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In this study, we specifically examine the use of narrative and fantasy video games related to vocabu-
lary learning in the target language, English. Narrative and fantasy video games have two main fea-
tures: first, players are encouraged to participate in different situations and make decisions that are
referred to in texts. Second, players are introduced to a fictional world where they are protagonists
and have to explore different multimodal contexts, engage with different modes of communication,
and participate according to some operational goals. As with other types of video games, software
developers and computer programmers, animators, sound engineers, writers, video game testers,
technical support specialists and other staff are involved in the creation of a game, which is a com-
plex iterative process. In narrative and fantasy video games, particular attention is paid to the written
modes, so that player can have explicit and clear instructions, understand the rules and conditions of
the game, learn how to proceed in the game and complete the indicated tasks, and at the same time
feel part of the experience and engage in new meaning-making activities. Indeed, a short story book
may contain from 500 to 18,000 words, or Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone, for instance,
have 76,944 words (cf. betterstorytelling.net), while a narrative and fantasy video game, like Dragon
Quest VII, includes 264,000 words; The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past&The Legend of Zelda:
Four Swords has 15,000 words, and Final Fantasy contains 344,000 words (Cf. https://gamicus.fan-
dom.com/wiki/List_of_longest_video_game_scripts).
Users also have tutorials and keywords at their disposal, along with an attractive, engaging and con-
textualized environment to facilitate understanding of content, language, directions and guidelines,
conditions at hand, tasks, and multiple other game-related variables.
Language learning can take place through different modes, including written mode, where players
need to understand instructions and actions to navigate through the environment, multimodal con-
text, modes of communication, and guide and direct the protagonist of the story, such as jumping,
climbing, and sprinting, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Example of instructions and actions included in The Legend of Zelda game.
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Meaningful, goal-driven actions are linked to meaning, interaction, and interplay of semiotic resources
and values. In this case, they are linked to the movement, gestures, actions, and interactions of the
character. As some of these actions are repetitive and their number is limited, learning how to navi-
gate, engage with the semiotic resources and proceed with the scenario may occur relatively quickly.
Moreover, these actions, modes of communication, and multimodal content may also be used in other
video games, so they can be easily anchored in experienced gamers’ linguistic repertoire. In addition,
tutorials often provide all the actions and their controls for practice, as shown in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2: Example of tutorials with actions and their respective controls.
The second source of written mode that pops up serves to inform players of their progress in the
game, offer warnings and other messages required to progress through the game, and guide play-
ers in enacting and participating in new meaning-making activities. These texts are contextual and
provide meanings for the player to infer, as shown in Figure 3 below.
Figure 3: Example of a text with contextualized information.
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Vocabulary terms related to virtual items such as tools, equipment and/or to other categories (food,
house) may be included, and players can easily recognize these items, as they are linked to different
multimodal elements, such as pictures, non-verbal cues, and other visual content. These multimodal
elements are usually highlighted in the texts, as shown in Figure 4 below.
Figure 4: Example of vocabulary item contextualized and highlighted.
As it is demonstrated in Figure 4, an explanation is provided about eating goat butter. The player
tries to create new meaning by relying on the explanation and by implementing different strategies,
which are commonly used in reading texts, such as induction, translation, and prediction. As playing
video games is an intrinsic drive, players have fun and try to process as many information as possible
in order to make the most of their gaming experience and achieve the desired goal.
Furthermore, non-linguistic elements are also used to enact new meaning. Initially, players are driven
into a fantasy world where exploration galvanizes their experience. At the beginning of the game,
players are usually introduced to this new world, as shown in Figure 5 below.
Figure 5: Example of a game introduction and the strategy used to get people
interested in exploring this new environment (The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild)
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Second, music is another effective means of creating overarching meaning and arousing emotion. In
particular, program music, a type of narrative music that attempts to make imaginative connections
with the music, aligns players’ emotional experience with both the actions and the adventure of the
game. DeHaan et al., (2010) suggest that program music can facilitate vocabulary uptake.
An ex post facto study was conducted to address three main research questions:
- RQ1: Do players of narrative and fantasy video games feel that they build new vocabulary in
English after playing video games?
- RQ2: What is the impact of video games on learners’ vocabulary development?
- RQ3: Is the newly acquired vocabulary stored in long-term memory?
A probabilistic convenience sample was used to reach subjects that had been exposed to narrative
and fantasy video games and belonged to different groups on social networks. Gamers were con-
tacted via Twitter, Instagram and Facebook. Four hundred and fifty-eight gamers participated in the
study.
The profile of the sample, which included mainly gamers, required a content tool that was as agile
as possible and guided in addressing each question in less than a minute. We decided to exclude
demographic information that would slow down the completion of the questionnaire, but would, in
turn, favor anonymous participation in the study, with the exception of email, which was required by
the tool deployed for data collection. Similar to Núñez-Barriopedro et al’s (2020) study, age, gender
and other possible moderator variables were not examined. As the questionnaire was administered
in Spanish, the participants were from Spanish-speaking countries, most likely from Spain and Cen-
tral and South America.
In the interest of content validity, an ad hoc questionnaire was designed to collect data according to
the three research questions guiding the study. It was of utmost importance to design a question-
naire that was pithy, focused and easy to answer. The questionnaire was reviewed by a pool of two
experts. We then deployed Google Forms to design a questionnaire that consisted of ten items di-
vided into two blocks. One block was a dichotomous scale for self-perception questions (items 2-6),
while the other block included multiple-choice questions to test vocabulary learning.
To avoid acquiescence bias, such as the tendency to select positive responses, item three was re-
versed. In addition, a dichotomous scale was used to avoid indecision bias, such as the tendency to
choose neutral or central answers. We determined the reliability of the questionnaire using Kuder
and Richardson’s formula, which is implemented to ensure the internal consistency of measurements,
with dichotomous response options. The questionnaire yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.66.
3.Methods
3. 1. Sample
3. 2. Research tool and data collection
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Due to the nature of the questionnaire, we used frequencies to derive to the results. To calculate the
Kuder-Richarson formula, we converted all responses to either 1 or 0. Thus, item 6 was scored 1 for
a positive response and 0 for a negative response, while the other nominal values were discarded.
For items 7, 8 and 9, each answer was scored 0.25, giving a total of one point. If two options were
selected, one positive answer was considered, and 0,5 and 0,75 were codified as one, and less than
0.5 as 0. Item 10, “maybe” option was codified as one.
The results are arranged according to the research questions (n=3), but the order of the items does
not follow the structure of the research questions mainly because the nature of the questions was
different and arranged according to the requirements of the tool format. The questionnaire consist-
ed of two parts:
- Block 1, which included items on self-perception of language learning experience
- Block 2, which included items on perception of learning a particular language repertoire. Item
one was a standard item for participants to jot down their email addressed, as required by the
Google Forms tool.
Research Question 1 invited participants to indicate whether they thought they had learned new
English vocabulary while playing narrative and fantasy video games. Items 2, 11, 3 and 4 were de-
signed to address this question. The results for item 2 are demonstrated in Figure 6 below.
Figure 6: Perception of linguistic benefits by playing video games
3. 3. Data analysis
4. Results
4. 1. Research question 1 results
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Item 2 was prepared for the players to introduce the topic of the questionnaire and to reflect on
their language learning experiences in order to address the first research question. The results for
this question were unanimous: 98% answered in the affirmative leaving no doubt that narrative and
fantasy video games are strongly associated with language learning. To confirm and support item 2,
participants were invited to indicate whether they could learn by following the instructions provided
in the games, as shown in Figure 7 below.
Figure 7: Screenshot used for item 11
The results of item 11 demonstrate that most participants agree that the game procedures and
instructions can facilitate learning in the target language, English. The results were affirmative, with
75.8% of the responded confirming that game procedures contribute to language learning and
19.9% noting that that the procedures may contribute to this process, compared to only 4.3% of
negative answers.
Item 3 was designed to gain more insights about video games and language learning to obtain a
more comprehensive picture in addressing the first research question. In this case, our goal was to
examine if language learning in a formal setting was related to the language repertoire used in this
type of video games. The vast majority of the participants, 91.3%, responded negatively, as demon-
strated in Figure 8. These findings indicate that the vocabulary learnt while playing video games is
the same as the vocabulary and formal discourse learnt in formal school contexts.
Item 4 may also offer some possible explanations on the nature of language learning emerging
while playing narrative and fantasy video games. In this case, our goal was to exclude other possible
sources of learning in order to zoom in the kind of vocabulary that is built during video game play-
ing. The results indicated that the vast majority of the respondents, 88.2% agreed that they had built
this type of vocabulary by playing video games, as demonstrated in Figure 9 below.
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Figure 8: Perception of language learning throughout video games versus school setting
Figure 9: Perception of the efficacy of language learning throughout video games
This research question aimed to examine the effect from playing different narrative and fantasy vid-
eo games had on participants’ language development. First, with item 6, we examined the role of
other language effects in settings other than the video games, and the effects on specific productive
language skills. Only 6.3% of participants reported not applying what they learned from playing
video games in other contexts. The remaining 93.7% agreed with item 6 by using different language
skills, 59.6% of the sample in writing and speaking, 19.9% in writing only, and 14.2% in speaking.
4. 2. Research question 2 results
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Items 7, 8, and 9 focused on soliciting information on whether participants had learned specific vo-
cabulary from playing video games and were divided into most frequent words (item 7), frequent
words (item 8), and less frequent words (item 9). We used english-corpora.org to determine the
frequency category of these vocabulary items. Bow, arrow, shield, and climb were selected as the
most frequent prototype words; trace, sorcery, spell and lift were chosen as frequent prototype
words; and chop, glide, cast and shovel as less frequent prototype words for narrative and fantasy
video games.
The results of item 7 demonstrate that more than 90% of the participants were familiar with these
vocabulary items and that more than half of the participants were familiar with the vocabulary items.
The results of item 8 demonstrated a similar outcome, with a positive impact on vocabulary learning
after playing video games. The numbers decrease progressively when the complexity of the vocab-
ulary items was introduced. Nevertheless, the results of item 9 are still positive. The specific results
are demonstrated in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Item 7 and 8 results
Use Words Clicks (n=458) Percentages
Most commonly used
Bow 313 68.3%
Arrow 339 40%
Shield 369 80.6%
Climb 269 58.7%
None 51 11.1%
Commonly used
Trace 193 42.1%
Sorcery 363 79.3%
Spell 363 79.3%
Lift 216 47.2%
None 29 6.3%
Less commonly used
Chop 199 43.4%
Glide 195 42.6%
Cast 377 82.3%
Shovel 298 65.1%
None 27 5.9%
Item 10 was intended to measure whether the musical element of video games contributes to us-
ers’ engagement with the games. The vast majority of the participants, 98.3%, responded positive-
ly (yes: 82.1%; maybe: 16.2%), indicating that music can be an important element in supporting
game progress and encouraging language learning. The results are demonstrated in Figure 10.
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Figure 10: Role of music for engagement in video games
Research question 3 served as a supplement to question 2. It aimed to examine whether participants
stored vocabulary learned in video games in their long-term memory. Most of the respondents,
94.5%, felt that all new vocabulary items learned through playing video games were indeed part
of their language repertoire, confirming the powerful effect that playing video games can have on
language learning. The results are demonstrated in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Perception of long-term memory retention
4. 3. Research question 3 results
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Within the trajectories of descriptive study, our aim was to examine the experience of learning Engli-
sh in narrative and fantasy video games in line with Núñez-Barriopedro et al’s (2020) work. The pro-
file of the players, generally young users, and the research instrument, an online social networking
questionnaire, required the adaptation of a particular methodology for data collection. On the one
hand, we had to prioritize the time allocating for answering the questionnaire, so the number of
items was relatively small (n=10) and the possible choice of answers had to be minimized to enhan-
ce participation (diatonic answers for most items). On the other hand, we had to reach a large pool
of participants to ensure a higher reliability coefficient (n=458).
However, the results should be taken with caution. Despite the positive relationship demonstrated
between narrative and fantasy video games and language learning, this study should be considered
as a preliminary attempt that needs further exploration, including the selection of further quanti-
tative data in order to generate a comprehensive picture of the actual impact of video games on
vocabulary development in the target language, as well as the nature of vocabulary development
and retention. In a similar vein, we believe the results point in a direction that could inform other
research studies examining the nature of video games in vocabulary development and retention in
a foreign language. This step could also be extended further to shed more light into the transfer of
these newly acquired vocabulary items in different real-life contexts.
The results clearly demonstrate that video game players perceive their experiences as educational
because they believe that playing narrative and fantasy video games leads to learning English voca-
bulary (items 2 and 4). Therefore, language in video games becomes operative and players can con-
sider the real-life implications of playing video games. Instead of relying on prescriptive narratives
embedded in institutional curricula for foreign language learning, video games can demonstrate
the effect of incidental learning as it unfolds in socially situated contexts. Multiple studies, such as
Orta-Casado and Peña-Acuña (2022) have already demonstrated an increase of vocabulary learning
using video games.
In a similar vein, the participants in this study consent that the language learned through playing
video games would not otherwise have been learned in school. Items 3 and 6 of the questionnaire
dealt precisely with the social and practical aspect of language learning. Therefore, the implications
of school curricula and the corresponding institutionally promoted methodologies are unequivocal-
ly raised. However, as Gee (2003) succinctly notes, content is not situated in institutionally promoted
discourse that is grounded on facts and principles but in practices where the content is “generated,
debated, and transformed via certain distinctive ways of thinking, talking, valuing, and, often, writing
and reading” (p. 21). Video games enact a path to examine learning within the trajectories in which
it unfolds and consider its further implications, especially on current and future generations which
often struggle between everyday practices and institutionally driven curricula.
Students’ learning needs, practices, and “cultures-of-use” of everyday communication practices (see
Thorne, 2003; 2016) need to be addressed in school curricula that contemplate the multimodal,
linguistic, cultural, and historical practices in which learners are engaged.
This study has demonstrated that narrative and fantasy video games are primarily used by ado-
lescents and a close relationship between video games and language learning emerges. In addi-
5.Discussion and Conclusions
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tion, item 3 also addressed language learning in contexts other than formally situated educational
contexts. Learning is no longer situated within the formal educational trajectories, new technolo-
gies and games engage students in critical learning (see Gee, 2003; 2007). As DeHaan et al. (2010)
postulate “Video games incorporate various technological and pedagogical elements to both
entertain and train the player” (p. 75). It is up to involved stakeholders, such as administrators, ins-
tructors, and teachers to leverage these technological and pedagogical affordances to facilitate vo-
cabulary learning and engagement in formal educational contexts. The findings of this study are also
consistent with the publication of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD, 2000), which also states that there is “a mismatch between the knowledge and its construc-
tion with which young people are working in formal settings in their classrooms and the kind of
knowledge with which they need to be engaging to work effectively in a Knowledge Society” (Coyle,
2011, p. 50). Gee (2003) has addressed this gap extensively through his work on games and learning.
Items 7, 8, and 9 dealt with the perception of knowing certain vocabulary words, graded from the
most frequent words (Item 7) to the less frequent words (Item 9): Participants had to select from a
list the words they were familiar with. The results confirm that playing narrative and fantasy video
games promotes language acquisition and corroborate the results of items 2, 3, and 4. These results
are consistent with other studies showing that playing video games leads to higher motivation and
enhanced language performance (Ebrahimzadeh and Alavi, 2017; Lee, 2008, etc.). In our study, par-
ticipants indicated that they could use the language learned in video games in different contexts,
mainly the skills of speaking and writing. However, the results on language performance are limited
to vocabulary, and we cannot provide clear insights into the cognitive processes involved in langua-
ge learning.
Multiple studies have been conducted to examine conscious and unconscious learning, claiming
that the benefits are greater when learning is unconscious or incidental (Bialystok, 1981). We be-
lieve that the learning implications emerge from a combination of variables, included needs and
motivation to progress in the story, as well as functionality. Participants indicated that they used the
newly acquired items in real-world communication. Prabhu (1987) pointed out that effective learning
occurs when learners are fully engaged in a task and not just learning about language. Our results
point in this direction, showing that most to less familiar vocabulary items are stored in long-term
memory.
The findings of this study may have several implications for school curricula and whether video ga-
mes or the practices used in video games could be integrated into the curricula.
Data have shown that adolescents spend too much time playing video games at home (Gómez-Gon-
zalvo et al., 2020); however, video games can also guide in building skills and undertaking strategic
decisions in the split of a second to overcome barriers, solve challenges, and progress in the game.
Users are actively engaged with the multiple semiotic resources and make decisions on which com-
munication modes to deploy to progress to the next level. Gaming is not a prescribed institutiona-
lly-driven activity but rather allows a level of autonomy in making certain decisions. The consequen-
ces may not be the same as in real-life situations, but the strategies galvanizing these decisions could
be transferred in real-life situations. Cautious and careful evaluation of each game, its pedagogical
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potential, learning objectives, and added value to the students need to be contemplated by an inter-
disciplinary team of practitioners, including teachers, educators, administrators, and policy makers.
The real-life learning context need to be finally addressed to transfer some of these practices to the
school curricula as path to upgrade them and enrich students’ learning experiences.
Further studies need to be conducted to align these institutional and personal practices. Our study
has shed some light into the implications of video games on vocabulary development. However, it
has a few limitations. For instance, it was situated within a specific context and solicited data using a
small number of questions. Gaming practices, expectations, values, and conditions at hand may vary
depending on the everyday practices and cultural, historical, and linguistic values (see Thorne, 2003,
2016). Technological advances, students’ expectations and practices change, so it is imperative to
consider these cultural-historical practices and adapt them to meet students’ learning needs.
Moreover, future studies should also include a pool of participants from different cultural and lin-
guistic backgrounds to examine the distinctive cultural, historical, and linguistic constructs that mold
these experiences within each culture. In our study, we included 458 participants. However, the parti-
cipants were native Spanish speakers, so players from other cultural and linguistic backgrounds may
have different perceptions, practices, and values that galvanize their learning experiences.
Finally, future studies should also include a more detailed and extensive set of data and strive for
triangulation of data to enhance the validity and reliability of the results. Our study was based on
self-assessment, which does not always generate objective results because responses could be ba-
sed on intuitions, biases, or false impressions. However, future studies should include the use of
more objective instruments such as achievement tests, interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic
accounts for data triangulation. This step could provide insight into how participants experience the
game and causal attributions could be derived.
Bialystok, E. (1981). The Role of Conscious Strategies in Second Language Proficiency. Canadian
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Casado-Orta, J. & Peña-Acuña, B. (2022). Video games lexicon included in Spanish language: a mul-
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Chen, H. J. H., & Yang T.Y.C. (2013). The Impact of Adventure Video Games on Foreign Language
Learning and the Perceptions of Learners. Interactive learning environments, 21 (2).
Coyle, D. (2011). Post-Method Pedagogies: Using a Second or Other Language as a Learning Tool in
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Cummings, Hope M., & Vandewater, E. A. (2007), Relation of Adolescent Video Game Play to Time
Spent in Other Activities. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161 (7), 684-9.
DeHaan, J.W., Reed, W.M., & Kuwada K. (2010). Effect of Interactivity with a Music Video Game on
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FRA coordinated the study. MFR designed the questionnaire and collected the data. FRA and MFR
analyzed the results. FRA prepared the manuscript and SH assessed in the theoretical framework
and the discussion section. SH and FRA reviewed the paper. FRA is correspondent author.
Authors’ contribution
