VOL. 4 (2024)

ISSN 2952-2013 pp. 21-53

https://doi.org/10.33776/linguodidactica.v4.8288

Exploring Linguistic Integration Strategies: Analysis

of Spanish Programs for Adult Migrants Based on

International Recommendations

Explorando estrategias de integración lingüística: Análisis de Programas

de español para migrantes adultos a partir de recomendaciones

internacionales

Nuria Vaquero Ibarra

Cervantes Institute / University of Huelva (Spain)

Resumen:

El artículo examina la relación entre las características

de los programas de idiomas para migrantes adultos y

su eﬁcacia formativa, utilizando como referencia el infor-

me de la OCDE Language Training for Adult Migrants

(OCDE, 2021). El documento ofrece conclusiones del

estudio internacional sobre prácticas en programas de

enseñanza, que ha permitido identiﬁcar una serie de

condiciones que pueden ayudar a gobiernos, institucio-

nes y proveedores de programas a mejorar la calidad de

la formación lingüística dirigida a este grupo de apren-

dientes de idiomas.

Se presenta un estudio con métodos mixtos realizado en

diez entidades en la Comunidad de Madrid que ofrecen

programas de español para migrantes adultos. El trabajo

incluyó la participación de directores, responsables aca-

démicos y profesores de español, quienes fueron entre-

vistados mediante la técnica de la entrevista semiestruc-

turada, sumando un total de 14 participantes. El objetivo

principal del estudio fue evaluar si las prácticas de estas

entidades están alineadas con las recomendaciones de

la OCDE (2021), identiﬁcar logros en los programas de

formación lingüística implementados y detectar posibles

aspectos que requieran ser ajustados en los programas

de español para migrantes adultos, con el ﬁn de garanti-

zar el derecho de los usuarios a una formación lingüística

de calidad que facilite su integración.

Palabras claves:

Educación de adultos, formación lingüística para la inte-

gración, migrantes y refugiados, programas de español,

técnica mixta

Fecha de aceptación: 08 de septiembre de 2024

Abstract:

The article examines the relationship between the cha-

racteristics of language programs for adult migrants and

their educational effectiveness, using the OECD report

“Language Training for Adult Migrants” (OECD, 2021) as

a reference. The document provides conclusions from

the international study on teaching practices, which has

identiﬁed a series of conditions that can help govern-

ments, institutions, and program providers improve the

quality of language training aimed at this group of lan-

guage learners.

A mixed-methods study conducted in ten entities in the

Community of Madrid that offer Spanish programs for

adult migrants is presented. The work included the par-

ticipation of directors, academic managers, and Spanish

teachers, who were interviewed using the semi-structu-

red interview technique, totaling 14 participants. The

main objective of the study was to evaluate whether the

practices of these entities are aligned with the OECD

(2021) recommendations, to identify achievements in

the implemented language training programs, and to

detect possible aspects that need to be adjusted in the

Spanish programs for adult migrants, in order to gua-

rantee the users’ right to quality language training that

facilitates their integration.

Keywords:

Adult education, Language training for integration, Mi-

grants and refugees, Mixed methods, Spanish programs

Fecha de recepción: 04 de julio de 2024

Exploring Linguistic Integration Strategies:

Analysis of Spanish Programs for

Adult Migrants Based on International

Recommendations

Explorando estrategias de integración lingüística:

Análisis de Programas de español para

migrantes adultos a partir de recomendaciones

internacionales

Nuria Vaquero Ibarra

Cervantes Institute / University of Huelva (Spain)

Contacto:

nuria.vaquero@cervantes.es

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[ 23 ]

In Europe, the labor dynamics reveal a striking reality: 50% of non-EU European workers hold occu-

pations considered essential by the European Commission, and 72% of their occupations are con-

centrated in crucial areas such as cleaning, caregiving, mining, construction, and personal care (Fan-

jul & Gálvez-Iniesta, 2020). These ﬁgures highlight the importance of migrant contributions to the

European economy and underscore the overrepresentation of non-EU migrants in low-skilled jobs

with poor job security. This situation, noted by Grünhage-Monetti and Svet (2017) in the German

context but applicable to many Western countries, is compounded by the underrepresentation of

this group in the educational sector. UNESCO (2018) warns that Research has highlighted the close

relationship between integration and language proﬁciency (García, 2020; Mavrou & Bustos-López,

2018; Hammer, 2017; Moreno Fernández, 2009; Esser, 2006). The level of linguistic competence in

the language of the host community signiﬁcantly correlates with access to employment (regardless

of educational background, previous qualiﬁcations, or migration history). Migrants with a high pro-

ﬁciency in the local language experience employment rates up to 30% higher compared to those

with lower proﬁciency, and show a notable improvement (up to 50%) in their perception of social

integration (Zorlu & Hartog, 2018).

Overqualiﬁcation is also related to low levels of language proﬁciency. Adult migrants struggling to

learn the host community’s language have an overqualiﬁcation rate 17% higher than those who do

not face these barriers (Bonfati et al., 2014). The practical and symbolic importance of learning the

new language is recognized by the migrants themselves, who consider it a crucial tool for their labor

and social integration (García & Ambadiang, 2018). Improving proﬁciency in the community’s lan-

guage not only contributes to the autonomy of migrants in the new environment (Hammer, 2017),

but also represents an essential currency in the complex institutional and linguistic setting into which

they are integrating (Spotti, 2017).

UNESCO (2018), recalling the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, urges States to guarantee the

educational rights of migrants and emphasizes the need to prioritize the right to quality training for

learning the language of the host country.

Although attending language courses in the host country increases the likelihood of language pro-

ﬁciency by 8% (OECD/EU, 2018, cited in OECD, 2021), few studies to date have examined the rela-

tionship between the characteristics of language programs for integration and the effectiveness of

the training (Rossner, 2008, 2014; Krumm & Plutzar, 2008). The publication Language Training for

Adult Migrants by the OECD (2021) aimed to explore this issue in an international study that identi-

ﬁed conditions that can enhance the effectiveness of language training programs for migrants.

This article examines the ﬁndings of the OECD’s international study and presents the results of an

exploratory study conducted in the Community of Madrid on Spanish programs for adult migrants.

It seeks to assess whether these practices are aligned with OECD recommendations, highlight the

achievements identiﬁed, and draw attention to aspects that may need to be reoriented to ensure the

right to quality language training that promotes integration.

The conclusions of the international study conducted by the OECD (2021) on practices in language

teaching programs to support the linguistic integration of adult migrants are summarized as follows:

1. Introduction

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1. Universal Access to Training. Language training, as an educational right, must be public (or sub-

sidized by public funds) and extended over time, regardless of the legal status and condition

of adult migrants as workers or beneﬁciaries of social beneﬁts. There must also be centralized

dissemination tools about public options for language learning to prevent potential students

from missing out due to a lack of information.

2. Early Access to Training. Migrants with limited proﬁciency in the host country’s language should

have access to language training as early as possible, even before migration. Studies have

shown that the steepest learning curve for the new language occurs within the ﬁrst twelve mon-

ths after settling in the community (Kosyakova et al., 2022). For individuals seeking international

protection, access should be ensured from the moment the application is submitted, as asylum

processing involves a lengthy administrative process. Language training should also be availa-

ble during family reuniﬁcation and for resettled refugees.

3. Elimination of Economic Barriers. The cost of language training for integration should be

viewed as an investment, not an expense. In OECD countries, there is debate about the feasi-

bility of providing free courses and how to make training accessible despite budget constra-

ints. In some countries, this training is free and widely available either to all migrants or to job

seekers. Other countries are experimenting with mechanisms to facilitate provision: symbolic

fee payments, deposit systems, interest-free loans, assistance linked to training attendance or

employment access, transportation subsidies, etc.

4. Speciﬁc Training Pathways to Meet Various Learning Needs. Heterogeneity is the most notable

common feature for this group of language learners, given their varied linguistic repertoires,

prior education and literacy levels, cultural backgrounds, migration histories, personal circum-

stances, goals, and professional prospects in the new community (OECD, 2021; Hanemann,

2018; Laimer & Wurzenrainer, 2017; Krumm & Plutzar, 2008; Rossner, 2008). It is recommended

to form groups of students with shared learning needs and to design speciﬁc training pathways

for non-literate migrants, those unfamiliar with the Latin alphabet, individuals with low educa-

tional levels, and those with high proﬁciency in the new language. The difﬁculty of precisely

linking a certain level of linguistic competence with a speciﬁc number of instructional hours is

emphasized due to the diversity of levels and learning situations.

Governments must ensure the prior assessment of migrants’ linguistic competencies, initial

education1, and learning needs to direct them to the most suitable language program. Standar-

dized language tests and needs analysis questionnaires should be used, including samples of

students’ spoken and written production. Program design should also consider the use of the

language in professional activities to which migrants may aspire. It is crucial that teachers help

each student create a personal learning plan to achieve their goals.

5. Integrated Vocational and Language Training. Combining linguistic and vocational training in

a single program has proven to be more motivating for these learners and more useful for

1 In the literature, students with low literacy levels and low educational backgrounds are known as LESLLA learners, which stands

for Literacy Education and Second Language Learning for Adults.

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employment access than separate, parallel, or sequential training (Delander et al., 2005). Due

to the costs and design challenges, this training offer is still limited. In some OECD countries,

speciﬁc integrated language and vocational training conducted in the workplace has been

successfully tested. Another tool to help employed migrants continue improving their langua-

ge proﬁciency is the “language leave,” a paid leave for up to 200 hours to attend language

training.

6. Flexible Modalities and Schedules. Lack of time (limited by housing and job searches, establi-

shing residence, administrative processes, caregiving responsibilities, or personal difﬁculties

inherent in migration, etc.) is the main barrier preventing adult migrants from learning the host

country’s language. Therefore, it is essential to incorporate tools such as ﬂexible schedules,

weekend courses, combined training modalities (in-person/part-time/online), and course de-

velopment in the workplace. Easily Accessible Locations and Environments. Providing langua-

ge courses in easily accessible places such as libraries, community centers, migrant associa-

tions, and workplaces helps users integrate language learning into their daily routines. In some

countries, language courses are offered in kindergartens and schools so that mothers and chil-

dren can learn together. Others, like Canada and the UK, have implemented location-based

learning programs with classes held at the migrant’s home, either individually or with the fami-

ly.

7. Promotion of Intrinsic Motivation. Besides regular course attendance, adults need time and

commitment to learn the host community’s language. Promoting intrinsic motivation is crucial.

Awareness campaigns and classroom activities focusing on the beneﬁts of language learning

for integration can be very valuable. Recognizing previous linguistic knowledge and encoura-

ging linguistic interactions with members of the host community accelerate the learning pro-

cess, while exclusion and negative sanctions are barriers to inclusion (Krumm & Plutzar, 2008).

8. Use of Technology in Teaching and Learning. ICT has enormous potential to expand the reach

of language courses and simultaneously promote digital literacy among migrants with limited

technological skills. Its use can enhance and diversify—instead of replacing—in-person courses.

ICT-based language training for migrants is growing, with three identiﬁed uses: ICT integra-

ted into the physical classroom, ICT for supplementary work outside the classroom, and ICT

in online courses. Kluzer et al. (2011) report successful cases in the Netherlands, where since

2010, ICT-based language training packages have been offered to students preparing for the

integration exam.

9. Involvement of Hired and Specialized Teachers. It is essential to have highly qualiﬁed language

teachers. The challenges faced by language teachers in this context are greater than in others:

complex classroom diversity, speciﬁc and varied learning needs of these students, absence of

a common linguistic background, psychosocial support, migration-related traumas, etc. (Ma-

vrou & Bustos-López, 2018; Krumm & Plutzar, 2008). Aware that teacher instability is a limita-

tion, some countries have introduced ﬁnancial incentives to encourage continuous training for

these language teachers, while others have opted to increase their remuneration.

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10. Collaboration with Education Specialists and Non-Traditional Partners. Innovation in these

programs has been the result of joint efforts by educators and language teaching specialists.

Third-sector entities, cultural and social associations, professional associations, and volunteer

networks can make signiﬁcant contributions to language training and integration in the migra-

tion context by sharing their experience in social inclusion educational programs.

11. Coordination and Regulation Mechanisms for Training Provision. Overlapping initial level lan-

guage training and insufﬁcient coverage at other levels have been identiﬁed, primarily due to

a lack of coordination. Thus, national and regional mechanisms are needed to provide cohe-

rence and consistency to this training. Regulation mechanisms identiﬁed for these programs

vary widely (Rocca et al, 2020). In the OECD, there are no common criteria for granting public

funding and subsidies or selecting language training course providers. Regulatory experien-

ces in some countries can serve as examples for others. In Germany, for example, the 2005

Immigration Law helped organize the various existing German as a foreign language programs

for migrants into a more coherent offer. The Goethe Institute created the syllabus for the cour-

ses, established the qualiﬁcation framework for teachers and the “German Test for Immigrants,”

and the development of the courses was taken over by the Federal Ofﬁce for Migration and

Refugees.

12. Evaluation of the Impact of Language Training. Ensuring the quality of additional language

teaching programs is especially important when the system includes sanctions for migrants

who do not reach a certain level of language proﬁciency and when the training is mandatory or

aims at employment and integration. Evaluating publicly funded language training programs,

besides being necessary for ensuring their quality and effective management, is also a duty to

taxpayers. To date, except for Canada, Australia, France, Germany, and the UK, OECD language

programs for migrants are not subject to systematic evaluations of their functioning.

To analyze the alignment of Spanish as an additional language teaching programs for adult migrants

in Spain with the recommendations in the OECD (2021) report, the Community of Madrid was cho-

sen as the optimal sample universe. This decision was based on various factors: Madrid has a sig-

niﬁcant migrant population (15% of the total population, over one million people2), with a growth

and distribution of the foreign population similar to the rest of the country, and a variety of actors

offering linguistic training for integration.

For the study’s development, contact was established with directors, academic leaders, and Spanish

teachers from different entities offering Spanish programs for adult migrants using the “snowball”

technique. Ten entities (including two centers from the same entity) agreed to participate in the

study. Interviews were conducted with 14 individuals (13 women and one man), including three

2 In the Immigration Plan of the Community of Madrid (2018), an upward estimate is made, and this ﬁgure was around

18%, considering that the estimated number of immigrants (13.5% in 2018) should be increased by the estimated 5%,

resulting from the processes of acquiring Spanish nationality that have taken place in Madrid over the last ﬁfteen years.

2. Methodology

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program directors, two coordinators, seven coordinators who were also course teachers, and two

Spanish teachers.

This sample encompasses a wide range of institutional actors and entities involved in providing Spa-

nish programs for adult migrants in the Community of Madrid, selected based on diversity criteria.

The sample includes two Adult Education Centers (CEPA), one public and one private, located in the

neighborhoods of Tetuán and Vallecas, respectively, areas with a large migrant and refugee popu-

lation in the region. Additionally, two centers from the Ofﬁcial Schools of Languages (EEOII), which

represent the ofﬁcial and specialized offer in teaching Spanish as a foreign language, were included.

Another entity dependent on the Community of Madrid, part of the centers created to address the

regional Immigration Plan, the Centers for Participation and Integration of Immigrants (CEPI), was

also included.

To represent experiences promoted by associative initiatives, a popular school with decades of ex-

perience in training vulnerable groups was contacted. Furthermore, leaders and teachers from the

Association for the Linguistic Integration of Immigrants in Madrid (ASILIM), which has been offering

Spanish programs for migrants since 2001, were interviewed. A private religious entity that funds

social Spanish programs was also included. Lastly, two organizations with experience in asylum and

international reception programs, funded by the Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security, and Migration:

the Spanish Commission for Refugee Assistance (CEAR) and the Red Cross, were selected.

This diverse selection ensures a comprehensive understanding of the different approaches and

practices in Spanish language teaching programs for migrants in the Community of Madrid, facilita-

ting a thorough evaluation of their alignment with OECD recommendations.

Two instruments were employed for this study. The ﬁrst was a semi-structured interview based on a

questionnaire developed by Rossner (2008) for providers of language programs for adult migrants

and refugees. Divided into three sections, the interview was designed to gather information about

the proﬁle of the entities and their teams, and the characteristics of the programs, paying attention

to the types of courses offered, the training paths included, the classes, the teaching materials, and

the evaluation and student guidance procedures used in their development. The data collected

through the semi-structured interview is mixed in nature.

The second tool was based on the online information provided by the entities on their Internet por-

tals. This tool helped to complete the collection of qualitative data and triangulate the information

gathered about the Spanish programs for migrants offered by the participating entities at the time

of the study.

The interviews were conducted either in person or online between April and August 2022. Online

interviews were conducted using Google Meet or Microsoft Teams, recorded with the built-in tools

of these platforms, and documented using TACTIQ 2022 software. In-person interviews were fully

transcribed using a transcription pedal. Reviewing the transcriptions of online interviews required

2.1. Instruments and Data Collection Tools

2.2. Organization and Data Analysis

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listening to the complete recorded sessions. Once the transcriptions were reviewed, the data was

coded with the assistance of MAXQDA 2022. The analysis led to the emergence of codes used to

analyze the development of Spanish programs in the participating institutions, as follows:

Student (7 variables): age / gender / migratory status / education / languages known and used /

literacy needs in Spanish / length of stay in Spain at the beginning of training

Entity (7 variables): organizational proﬁle / mission / history / experience in developing Spanish pro-

grams / funding / agreements with other entities for developing Spanish programs for migrants and

refugees / institutional support

Programs and Courses (24 variables): types of courses / levels of Spanish offered / most demanded

levels and courses / training paths / training modalities / enrollment / costs and subsidies / schedu-

les / number of students / student attendance / course curriculum / group homogeneity / teaching

methodology / class ratio / level tests / training needs analysis / class planning / teaching strategies

appropriate to the context / teaching materials / use of technology in learning / learning evaluation

/ complementary services / student satisfaction assessment / quality assurance system

Teams and People (6 variables): team proﬁles / relationship with the entity (employment or other) /

collaborative work / continuous training / positive aspects of program development / areas for im-

provement

The results were analyzed in two phases. In the ﬁrst phase, four key aspects affecting these programs

were addressed, which are crucial for structuring the provision of linguistic training for the integra-

tion of adult migrants. These aspects include mechanisms that regulate access to programs, tools

to ensure early incorporation into training from community settlement, ways to overcome economic

barriers to ensure the provision of Spanish courses for integration, and available courses and trai-

ning paths for this student proﬁle. The conclusions of this phase are detailed in Vaquero and Fonse-

ca (2022).

In the second phase, the analysis of the collected data was completed by incorporating the eight

additional aspects (characteristics 5-12 described in the introduction) affecting linguistic training

programs for integration, as outlined in the OECD international study (2021).

The results are presented below. The conclusions from the ﬁrst phase of the study are summarized

and incorporated as they are crucial for providing an overall view of the Spanish programs for adult

migrants offered in the Community of Madrid.

The ﬁndings of the analysis are presented in two ways. The ﬁrst (Table 1, appendix) is the result of a

detailed analysis of the collected data, organized according to the aspects proposed by the OECD

(2021) as key elements to ensure the quality of linguistic training offerings aimed at the integration

of adult migrants.

3. Results

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The second (Image 1), which corresponds to the narrative description of the results presented be-

low, is organized into six sections: 1) Available training offerings and access to programs and cour-

ses; 2) Flexible training schedules and modalities to facilitate continuity and combat absenteeism;

3) Hired Spanish teachers, specialized and professionalized; 4) Materials and resources for teaching

Spanish as a language of migration; 5) Partnerships for educational innovation and response to spe-

ciﬁc social and labor integration needs; 6) Mechanisms of regulation and evaluation of the offerings.

The research has allowed these categories to emerge as key elements to ensure the educational

quality of Spanish programs for adult migrants. Subsequent studies should conﬁrm the presence of

these categories in a quality assurance model that serves for the development and self-assessment

of Spanish linguistic training programs for integration being developed in our country.

Figure 1. Graph representing the emerging categories in the study that have been revealed as key to the quality of Spanish programs

for integration.

Source: own elaboration

Most of the entities in the study have continuously open programs and allow the enrollment of adult

migrants in Spanish courses, regardless of their immigration status, place of residence, or the admi-

nistrative documentation they can provide. Courses offered to beneﬁciaries of the asylum program

are not accessible to those who have not been accepted into the program.

All entities refer students to other centers if they do not have available spots in their programs. Ac-

cess to Spanish courses leading to ofﬁcial recognition (EEOII) is difﬁcult for adult migrants due to

the required enrollment periods and deadlines, the inability to join courses already in progress, and

the need for special authorizations for courses speciﬁcally tailored to these learners, which are only

marginally available.

3.1. Available Educational Offerings and

Access to Programs and Courses

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Only beneﬁciaries of the asylum program are guaranteed access to language training for integra-

tion, as attendance in Spanish courses is mandatory. This guarantee covers a period of 9 to 12 mon-

ths for asylum applicants and up to 24 months for those who eventually obtain refugee status.

The overall offer of Spanish courses for adult migrants shows a lack of structure, with different re-

gulatory frameworks coexisting, alongside ofﬁcial and non-formal education programs, and both

public and private offerings involving various actors: from EEOII, public and private CEPA, CEPI,

third-sector entities, social-purpose associations, and private entities linked to the Catholic Church.

Additionally, the study found no centralized mechanisms for disseminating course offerings.

Some entities offer free programs, funded either by public or private funds, while others charge

enrollment fees, and some have nominal fees to ensure attendance, continuity, and commitment to

the training. Economic barriers to accessing the only ofﬁcial Spanish education, provided by EEOII,

are high for this group of learners, which is reﬂected in the low percentage of migrant students in

their classes (no more than 10% in A1-B1 courses). Most entities target individuals over 18 years old,

although some accept young migrants over 16. Few entities (those in the asylum program and two

private entities) have resources to offer ﬁnancial aid (for transportation or food) to facilitate course

attendance.

All entities in the sample indicate a wide variety of situations regarding the time between migrants’

arrival in Spain and their enrollment in Spanish programs. Generally, two situations are observed:

young, newly arrived individuals who usually join programs immediately - more men than women -

and long-settled migrants in Spain - primarily women - who begin training after their children start

school and gain relative autonomy. Among the latter group are political migrants who did not initia-

lly seek asylum and start Spanish programs when they realize their options to return to their country

are limited.

Early access to training is only guaranteed for students in the asylum program. For other migrants,

joining a language training program is voluntary and the decision to participate is inﬂuenced by

multiple factors, including their personal, social, administrative, and employment situation in the

new community.

The course offerings of the Spanish programs analyzed are very homogeneous, showing overlap

and lack of diversity in the programs. The entities offer general Spanish courses for levels A1-B1,

with the existence of programs for level B2 or higher being marginal. In the asylum program, vou-

chers covering up to €600 may be granted to help cover B2 courses at external entities.

Most analyzed entities offer literacy courses for adult migrants. Only 30% offer preparation courses

for DELE exams, mainly for level A2, which is linked to nationality tests.

Only one entity offers Spanish courses for speciﬁc groups, such as women from Bangladesh and

people from sub-Saharan Africa. No courses were found for adult migrants from large linguistic

family groups or for highly educated migrant students who may require a fast-paced learning envi-

ronment.

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Only one entity, CEPI, has developed a course integrating digital literacy with linguistic literacy for

migrant students.

In the analyzed sample, most entities (except EEOII and a private school that has developed a pro-

posal) have not related language proﬁciency levels with the necessary instruction hours in the cour-

ses students must take to achieve them.

Regarding literacy courses, there are differences in how they are integrated with Spanish courses.

Some entities consider them complementary and offer them parallel to oral Spanish courses, while

others, more numerous, see them as consecutive stages and require literacy as a preliminary phase

for accessing A1-level Spanish programs. Most entities have adopted a traditional literacy approach,

focusing on reading and writing. Generally, entities face the challenge of combining literacy and

Spanish teaching, for which they have developed their own materials and programs. Additionally,

they recognize the urgent need to train their teachers to meet the needs of LESLLA learners.

Only one entity offers a course integrating Spanish learning objectives with professional objectives.

Only one course for labor integration, offered by ASILIM, integrates job search-related objectives

and content with linguistic objectives and content. Another entity mentioned having developed a

course in the past for Spanish vocabulary related to a profession.

Entities developing the asylum program and CEPA offer professional training courses in Spanish,

though this training is not integrated with Spanish courses but considered a continuation of non-lin-

guistic training. These professionalizing courses are part of complementary itineraries accessible

to students who have reached at least an A2 level of Spanish. The professional offerings of the two

CEPA in the sample are particularly notable. In one, migrant students can access free Basic Vocatio-

nal Training in areas such as electronics and electricity, as well as auxiliary operations of general ad-

ministrative services. The other CEPA offers a wide range of courses in hospitality, personal image,

and electricity/electronics, along with opportunities to obtain professional certiﬁcations in various

ﬁelds.

No entity in the sample offers speciﬁc Spanish courses for a particular profession taught in the wor-

kplace. However, a private entity linked to the Catholic Church is developing a workplace-based

hospitality training course in collaboration with an NGO.

For entities offering Spanish in the asylum program, students take job orientation or training cour-

ses once they reach an A2 level and are referred to the employment service. Although the asylum

program does not offer combined (linguistic-labor) programs, students have access to a specialized

service with social workers and integration technicians who help design personalized training paths

for employment.

All Spanish programs of the analyzed entities are offered in person. During the pandemic, all enti-

ties, except one that suspended activities, provided online training to their students. After this pe-

riod, only two have continued with online training as a complement to in-person classes.

3.2. Flexible Schedules and Training

Modalities to Facilitate Continuity

and Combat Absenteeism

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Most entities (except EEOII) allow students to enroll in their programs at any time of the year, either

because they offer short-term courses (monthly or quarterly) or because they allow enrollment in on-

going courses. One entity reported organizing “Welcome Courses” where students stay until there

are available spots in courses at their level.

Regarding schedules, most entities offer training in the morning and afternoon. Only two centers in

the sample have Saturday classes, though only for DELE A2 preparation courses. The private school

offers supplementary activities and cultural outings on Saturdays.

Whenever possible, entities allow students to change courses if personal or employment situations

prevent them from continuing in their reference group, but this possibility is limited to the availabi-

lity of courses and spots (not all programs at the same levels are available in entities with morning

and afternoon schedules). If they cannot offer this possibility, they help students identify where to

continue their Spanish training.

In this regard, among all entities in the sample, the EEOII stands out for allowing students to request

the transfer of their records to any other ofﬁcial language school at any time, a suitable measure to

ensure the continuity of Spanish training, especially when they access or change jobs or residence

and province, which is especially common in asylum processes. The EEOII does not require manda-

tory attendance to take the ofﬁcial end-of-course certiﬁcation exams and allows non-enrolled stu-

dents to take these certiﬁcation exams as well.

All entities reported having measures to promote regular student attendance, which is highly com-

promised in these programs due to the various situations mentioned earlier. Irregular attendance

occurs in all of them, to a greater or lesser extent, both in Spanish and literacy courses, although in

asylum programs, attendance is more regular because it is mandatory, and students cannot work

during the ﬁrst six months in the reception phase.

To encourage class attendance, all entities have opted for supportive rather than punitive measures,

although some drop students from the program if they do not attend to free up spots for people on

the waiting list. All entities have also established attendance requirements for issuing certiﬁcates.

In addition to issuing certiﬁcates, entities promote intrinsic motivation and student commitment

through various measures, especially through methodological choices: communicative and task-ba-

sed approach, student-centered learning, experiential, participatory and facilitating methodology,

inclusive and emancipatory, and recognizing their plurilingual repertoires and knowledge capital.

Other reward measures to encourage student engagement in their learning and foster intrinsic mo-

tivation include: cultural outings, participation in center activities with the rest of the educational

community and individualized support and follow-up tutorials (carried out by all entities), access

to social services (60% of entities), access to job boards and translation services (30%), access to

employment services, issuance of progress reports (20%), signing a contract outlining their training

commitment, breakfasts included in the program, childcare while parents are in class, Spanish as a

Foreign Language (ELE) classes based on the arts, and a sense of participation and belonging to a

community (10%).

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Although all entities in the sample report providing resources to their language course teachers, in-

cluding schedules, proprietary manuals, or suggested Spanish manuals for use in classes, one of the

urgent challenges in Spanish programs for adult migrants in the Community of Madrid is the search

for strategies to incorporate specialized teachers with extensive accumulated experience in other

teaching contexts into teaching Spanish for adult migrants.

In 40% of the analyzed sample, teachers do not necessarily have specialized training in Spanish. In

50%, they also do not necessarily have contracts and remuneration that can guarantee the continuity

of their dedication, as they may be linked to these programs as volunteer teachers. In 50% of the

entities in the sample, teachers have not received specialized training in migration contexts.

The data collected in the study highlights the urgent need for the professionalization of Spanish

teachers working in programs for migrants in the Community of Madrid.

In public offerings and those funded with public funds, the situations vary greatly depending on

whether the Spanish teaching is ofﬁcial or not. In the analyzed sample, highly specialized ELE (Spani-

sh as a Foreign Language) teachers (from EEOII) coexist with teachers who teach literacy or Spanish

courses without having any training as Spanish teachers (from CEPA); civil servant teachers (from

EEOII and CEPA) coexist with teachers hired by private entities that develop asylum programs throu-

gh tenders, and even in these latter cases, volunteer teachers are involved.

The head of studies of the public CEPA in the analyzed sample insisted on the requirement of Spa-

nish teacher specialization to be able to meet the needs of migrant students who come to the class-

rooms of centers like hers. Currently, primary school teachers (for literacy) or secondary school tea-

chers of any specialty (for Spanish courses) work with them.

In the CEPI Spanish course offerings, a similar situation occurs: Spanish teachers are hired by com-

panies or associations that win the bidding processes and assume the development of the pro-

grams, or they are volunteer supporters.

In the asylum programs in the sample, funded with public funds, the coordinators of the Spanish

project are linguistic integration technicians hired by their entities. They have specialized training in

Spanish teaching and previous experience in migration contexts. However, the teachers, except in

rare cases, are either Spanish teachers from non-regulated training schools that bid to take on the

teaching of these programs or volunteers.

The modalities of hiring teachers through bidding processes can hardly guarantee Spanish teachers

continuity in teams, full-time contracts, or remuneration consistent with their specialized training.

Regarding the private offer represented in the sample, the participation of the Spanish teacher as

a volunteer collaborator also occurs in 66.6% of the reviewed programs, and specialized training

as a Spanish teacher and experience in migration contexts is only a requirement in 50% of the en-

tities. Among the private offerings, only one center has tenured Spanish teachers with training and

experience in ELE, who are supported in classes by volunteers and interns. Additionally, if hired, the

remuneration of Spanish teachers in non-regulated education is far from that of civil servants in the

3.3. Hired, Specialized, and Professionalized

Spanish Teachers

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EEOII and public CEPA, and the non-regulated education agreement does not ensure that these tea-

chers have work time for class preparation and participation in the center’s pedagogical activities.

Notably, three of the entities in the sample have experience in organizing workshops and seminars

for training Spanish teachers who want to work in the migration context or are collaborating with

external institutions to share their experiences in attending to migrant students. One school offers

initial training courses to its volunteer teachers on Paulo Freire’s framework of emancipatory peda-

gogy.

All entities are aware of the importance of didactic materials adapted to the needs of this educa-

tional context to foster student motivation and engagement in learning. Therefore, some of these

entities have created and edited their own materials (20%).

In recent years, the creation and publication of classroom materials have been more frequent for

literacy courses than for Spanish courses, due to the smaller market offering of literacy methods for

migrants. Some entities have created their own literacy methods and organized them into Literacy

Notebooks. Other entities reported working in literacy courses with unpublished proprietary ma-

terials and with other materials such as the “Cartillas” from Palau and Rico publishers and literacy

materials used in primary education for native learners. A publication of materials for oral Spanish

courses for illiterate learners was also identiﬁed.

To share the materials created with other entities working with this student proﬁle and in this tea-

ching context, most organizations in the sample share the didactic materials they create through

their internet portals.

Regarding the publication of materials, two entities stand out: the Red Cross, which has its own

manuals in collaboration with partners (Aprendiendo un idioma para trabajar, Manéjate en español,

and Horizontes), and CEAR, which besides their self-created materials Conectar, for literacy, reading

and writing, and oral Spanish, has an adapted edition of a commercial manual for the users of their

programs, Español en marcha. For class preparation, the entities reported working with speciﬁc

manuals aimed at migrants, such as ¿Cómo se dice…? Manual de español para inmigrantes (Funda-

ción Montemadrid), Tejiendo el español (A1) (La Rueca), as well as commercial Spanish manuals not

speciﬁc to this teaching context, such as Aula Internacional (Difusión), ELE Curso de español para

extranjeros (Ediciones SM), Sueña (Anaya), Lengua viva (Santillana), Bitácora, Abanico and Socios

(Difusión), Prisma (Edinumen), along with materials available on the internet and others created by

the teaching team of each entity.

The use of ICT in the face-to-face Spanish courses analyzed in the sample is standardized, although

it is not common in literacy courses because the latter students have limited digital skills. All entities

reported having projectors for classroom work (some with one or more digital whiteboards) and that

the use of mobile phones in classroom tasks is highly motivating for students. The most used appli-

cations in face-to-face Spanish classes are WhatsApp, Telegram, and YouTube, with the ﬁrst being

the only one reported used in literacy courses.

3.4. Materials and Resources for Teaching

Spanish as a Migration Language

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The use of virtual platforms with great potential to integrate ﬂipped classroom strategies is still li-

mited. Only 40% have the possibility of using their own virtual classroom as a complement to fa-

ce-to-face training, and its use is still limited and largely depends on the digital competence of the

teachers who teach the courses and the time they can dedicate to developing materials to share with

students through these platforms.

As mentioned in the teaching modalities, the possibility of offering online courses as a complement

to face-to-face work is only available for Spanish courses and only in four entities. Additionally, the

online programs available are not their own but general ELE courses accessed by agreements with

entities and institutions and only for a very speciﬁc student proﬁle3. Therefore, in the sample, online

courses speciﬁcally developed for adult migrants are anecdotal (only one entity has one).

Entities reported having teachers heterogeneously trained in digital tools applicable to teaching

processes and consider it essential that they have specialized training to successfully and systema-

tically integrate ICT in Spanish classes for adult migrants and that the teaching materials they create

and/or publish reﬂect this integration.

The study identiﬁed promising collaboration initiatives with third-sector organizations for develo-

ping programs that combine Spanish learning, social and community integration, and access to

employment.

One public center, CEPI, stands out for offering its own programs (Programa Integra and Programa

Algarabía) and developing others in collaboration with third-sector entities to address the Spanish

learning needs of speciﬁc groups and work on gender equality, women’s empowerment, and social

inclusion of young migrants from speciﬁc communities.

Among private offerings, a noteworthy initiative is from a private entity linked to the Catholic Church

that has successfully incorporated integration objectives into its Spanish project by combining the

accumulated experience of NGOs, social-purpose entities (Psychologists Without Borders, Caritas,

CESAL, etc.), and even international corporations with corporate social responsibility projects (crea-

ting a job bank for migrants in the school).

Collaboration agreements with universities have also been identiﬁed for training ELE teachers to

host trainee teachers and develop intercultural sensitivity.

In the ﬁeld of research on Spanish teaching and migration context, one entity, ASILIM, has participa-

ted in numerous projects for migrants promoted by the Cervantes Institute (piloting DELE A2 exam

tests for migrants), UNED (developing MOOCs for social inclusion and employability), and Nebrija

University (Inmigra2007 project and the Friends Network of the Nebrija Chair of Spanish as a Lan-

guage for Migrants and Refugees).

3 The Red Cross and the private school associated with the Catholic Church have signed collaboration agreements with

the Cervantes Institute to offer Ukrainian students the Institution’s online Spanish courses, AVE Global. For its part, CEAR

has signed an agreement with a company specialized in online language training for the creation of online courses.

3.5. Alliances for Educational Innovation

and Response to Speciﬁc Social

and Labor Integration Needs

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Interviewees from the EEOII expressed the need for greater ministerial coordination to facilitate the

collective participation of ELE specialist teachers in educational projects with other entities working

on linguistic training for adult migrants.

Although these collaboration initiatives with non-traditional educational partners are very promising

for incorporating social integration services into Spanish programs, the study has shown that public

initiatives are needed to promote and support these collaborations to maintain their continuity over

time.

The study has shown that there are no common academic regulation mechanisms (affecting pro-

gram development, methodology, learning evaluation, or student orientation) for Spanish programs

aimed at migrant integration in the Community of Madrid. Since there is no speciﬁc Spanish curricu-

lum for teaching (regulated or not) that considers the learning context imposed by migration or re-

fuge, the entities in the sample reported using the Common European Framework of Reference for

Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) (2001) (100%), the Cervantes Institute’s Curricu-

lum Plan. Spanish Reference Levels (PCIC) (2006) (70%), the publication Spanish as a New Language.

Cervantes Institute Guidelines for an Emergency Course for Immigrants (40%) or the manuals used

in these courses (40%) as references for developing their Spanish course programs. The interviewed

EEOII use the ofﬁcial Spanish curriculum of the EEOII for their programs, although they are aware

that adaptation is required for this student proﬁle. The EEOII, as the only ofﬁcial Spanish teaching

offering, is the only one with its own academic regulation mechanisms for language teaching.

For literacy course programming, 50% report having their own programs and methods, published

or not, created by their teams, based on research and experimentation with literacy methods for

non-migrant adults. In the case of the sample’s CEPA (20%), both entities have programs referenced

to the initial education curriculum. The rest of the entities have programs developed either by the

teachers who teach the courses or by an organized team from the center. None of the interviewees

mentioned consulting the pre-A1 level scales published in June 2022 by the Council of Europe in

the LASLIAM project when referring to the references used for literacy and reading-writing course

programming. None expressed awareness of the materials developed by the Council of Europe for

the linguistic integration of migrants, the Toolbox of the LIAM project (Council of Europe, 2023).

Regarding student learning evaluation, all entities reported having speciﬁc evaluation procedures:

continuous evaluation (100%), objective oral and written ﬁnal evaluation tests in Spanish courses

(40%), written tests in literacy courses (30% of the entities offering literacy courses).

The sample entities have procedures for assessing the development of their programs: through

teacher meetings (100%), student satisfaction questionnaires (80%), reports for responsible and/

or funding institutions (50%), class observations by program coordinators (30%), peer feedback in

co-teaching classes (20%), student evaluations published on Google, and assemblies with students

and teachers of the courses (10%).

3.6. Mechanisms for Regulation

and Evaluation of Offerings

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Only entities developing public or publicly funded programs prepare course reports to be submi-

tted to the corresponding program monitoring unit and receive feedback on their development,

which may include improvement suggestions. In the case of entities specializing in refuge and re-

ceiving public funding from the Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security, and Migration, they must also

present program reports.

Public entities dependent on the respective Education Councils (CEPA and EEOII) have the support

of the inspection body. Only the private school has a quality evaluation procedure by an external

entity, in this case, the Cervantes 4Institute, due to its status as an accredited center.

It can be stated that evaluating the quality of Spanish program offerings for the entities in the sample

is a pending challenge for all of them. Having evaluation and improvement mechanisms for Spanish

programs for adult migrants is an unﬁnished task for language training course providers for integra-

tion in the Community of Madrid. None of the interviewees mentioned referring to the 2014 Council

of Europe guide for evaluating language programs for migrants and refugees (Rossner, 2014) or

using its criteria for program development when discussing program quality issues.

As noted by Vaquero & Fonseca (2022) in their previous work, the “Adult Education and Training in

Europe” (2021) report by EACEA highlights the high risk of social exclusion faced by migrants in Eu-

rope due to their low educational levels, limited proﬁciency in the host community’s language, and

poor digital skills. Although some countries have implemented mandatory language programs to

address this issue, Spain still lacks a similar program at the national or regional level.

In Spain, early access to Spanish language training is mandatory and incompatible with employment

during the ﬁrst six months for refugees. However, as the data shows, other migrants, especially mi-

grant women with dependents, do not have sufﬁcient social protection mechanisms to balance new

employment, childcare, and personal instability with language training. Adult migrants who are not

accepted as asylum seekers have the right to participate in programs offered by public or private

centers but cannot beneﬁt from training programs speciﬁcally designed to meet their needs related

to learning and using Spanish.

Similarly, access to Spanish courses above the B2 level is guaranteed, and only partially, for refugees.

This access is always tied to the duration of their beneﬁts and a maximum cost of €600 (the assistan-

ce provided by asylum programs for continuing education after reaching B1 level). Additionally, the

combined offer of language training and job training in sequenced or parallel courses is primarily

accessible to refugees and those completing their education at CEPA.

4 The Instituto Cervantes has a quality seal for centers teaching Spanish as a foreign language, which is regulated by

the standards of the Instituto Cervantes Accreditation System for Centers (SACIC). More information: https://acredita-

cion.cervantes.es/centros/veriﬁcacion_criterios.htm

4. Discussion

4.1. Access to Spanish Language

Training for Migrants

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While international agreements are prescriptive for refugees (Refugee Status, UN Convention, 1951),

as Sosinski (2018) recalls, Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is unequivocally

clear in stating that “everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the

elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.” If we understand

“elementary instruction” for migrants as learning the language of the host community, UNESCO’s

(2018) recommendation makes sense when it emphasizes that “governments must protect the right

to education for migrants and refugees, regardless of their identity documents or residency status,

and apply the laws without exception.” Therefore, the conclusions drawn from our study’s analysis

point to a discriminatory situation in Spain regarding access to Spanish language training for econo-

mic adult migrants compared to refugees.

Moreover, it is notable that the only offer leading to ofﬁcial Spanish proﬁciency certiﬁcations, that of

EEOII, presents signiﬁcant access barriers for the migrant population, such as restrictive schedules,

limited enrollment periods, and high costs. Additionally, the curriculum of these programs does not

address the speciﬁc needs of LESLLA migrants.

In contrast, the available Spanish programs accessible to migrants fall under non-regulated educa-

tion, implying the lack of an ofﬁcial curriculum, professionalized teacher proﬁles, ofﬁcial certiﬁcate

validity, and public educational regulation. This highlights the urgent need for a more inclusive and

accessible structure to guarantee Spanish learning for the migrant population in Spain.

Given the current regulatory situation in Spanish language teaching in the context of migration, our

study’s ﬁndings emphasize the urgency of establishing coordination mechanisms at the national or

regional level for language training offerings aimed at adult migrants. This includes the imperative

need to develop a speciﬁc curriculum for Spanish as a language for integration, which can serve as

a reference in both formal and non-formal education programs. This need has been demanded by

professionals in the ﬁeld for nearly two decades. This curriculum should consider both the needs of

language learners with prior literacy in their L1, levels A1-C2 of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001;

2018), and those who were unable to develop literacy in their L1 due to little or no prior schooling,

levels Pre A1, of LASLLIAM (Minuz, 2022).

Our study has evidenced the existence of a diverse range of Spanish programs for adult migrants,

often with a long history and accumulated experience, developed by public entities, third sector or-

ganizations, or private entities of an associative nature or linked to the Catholic Church, which ﬁnan-

ce their activities with public funds or self-ﬁnancing tools. Most ensure free access to their Spanish

programs for adult migrants, which represents a signiﬁcant effort and social responsibility exercise,

especially by entities that do not have access to subsidies or public funds. These ﬁndings are con-

sistent with those of Bednarz (2017), who identiﬁes a mixed system of language training for adult

migrants throughout Europe, with both public and private offerings whose policy, resources, and

funding are determined by competent authorities. Bednarz insists that the scope and coverage of

language training programs for integration vary signiﬁcantly between countries, and in Mediterra-

nean Europe, especially, there is an unstructured mix of actors and funds, which undermines pro-

gram continuity.

4.2. Educational Rights for Refugees

and Migrants

4.3. Need for National or Regional

Coordination

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This study also highlighted that, despite the necessity and positive outcomes of the actions taken by

entities developing Spanish programs for adult migrants, greater coordination is needed, necessa-

rily conducted by the public sector, affecting course offerings, curricular, programmatic and didactic

aspects, resources, activity regulation, teacher training, and program information and dissemination.

This need for coordination and regulation was identiﬁed almost two decades ago as a conclusion

of Villarreal’s (2009) international study. Its absence “prevents the efﬁcient use of resources, efforts,

and know-how in key areas such as the development and publication of materials” in this educatio-

nal context. Specialists in Spanish teaching who endorsed the Santander Manifesto (2004) and the

Alicante Proposals (Cifuentes, 2006) argued similarly.

Another ﬁnding of our study pertains to the overlap in the existing Spanish course offerings within

the sample entities, which mainly consist of general Spanish courses (A-B1/B2), literacy courses, and

DELE preparation courses—with particular focus on level A2, due to its link to the nationality exam.

The offering of courses tailored to homogeneous groups with similar linguistic needs is minimal.

The OECD (2021) report warns of the risks associated with highly heterogeneous language courses

(different origins, motivations, and learning objectives, varying educational levels and professional

training, as well as different linguistic repertoires). Sarraj (2017) explains the situation in Switzerland

as follows:

“Institutions organize classes with the maximum number of students possible, without always con-

sidering the differences between the levels of migrant students [...] who do not have the same rela-

tionship with the target language/culture, the same educational background, the same family con-

text, or the same expectations. This creates difﬁculties for both students and teachers. Individual

and cultural differences hinder those with a good level and demotivate those with an intermediate

level. Since languages do not have the same phonetic and morphological systems, this leads to

grammatical, semantic, and phonological interferences (Sarraj, 2015) that are difﬁcult to address in

heterogeneous classes.” (Sarraj, 2017)

An additional challenge presented by general language courses aimed at heterogeneous groups

is their tendency to prioritize the development of language competencies without systematically

incorporating intercultural objectives. The need for an intercultural approach in language programs

for migrants has been advocated by Spanish teaching specialists (Propuestas de Alicante, 2006)

and highlighted in research (Amery, 2021; Bruneau, 2017; Nieuwboer & Rood 2017; Rossner, 2008).

This approach aims not only to address communication practices but also to ensure that learners

integrate savoir être—practices and linguistic uses that help them relate to others and empathize.

This includes developing attitudes that help accept and manage the strange and unpredictable, the

unstable, and what might initially seem culturally inappropriate (Bruneau, 2017).

Programs for teaching Spanish to migrants should consider preventing cultural shock and addres-

sing migration-related stress. Fernández (2018) emphasizes the stress involved in migration, as des-

cribed by Achotegui (2009), through the seven migration griefs a migrant faces: the loss of fami-

ly, language, culture, homeland, social status, group belonging, and physical risks. This sustained

stress requires psychoeducational attention from teachers and psychological counseling services.

4.4. Intercultural Approach in Spanish Language

Teaching Programs for Migrants

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Fritz and Donat (2017) interviewed young migrants in Sweden, Austria, and Germany to identify the

main psychosocial aspects affecting the learning of a new additional language. The youth reported

stress affecting various areas (security and stability; family and friends; education; job prospects).

Their conclusions indicate that integration is closely linked to the stability migrants achieve in the

new community.

The UNESCO report (2018) on migration, displacement, and education emphasizes the need to

train teachers to identify stress and trauma among migrant students and refer them to appropriate

specialists. Some authors (Sarraj, 2017) advocate for language teachers of culturally homogeneous

groups to be educators with the same cultural background as the learners or those with migration

experience (Fritz & Donat, 2017), so they can assist in navigating the different phases of migration

grief. The literature reports success stories on the contribution of foreign-born teachers to educa-

tion, language acquisition, and developing the learner’s proﬁle as an intercultural speaker (Larrotta

& Chung, 2020).

Furthermore, the literature has highlighted the need for intercultural mediators in Spanish language

programs to facilitate and promote contact between different cultural communities, as seen in Pro-

puestas de Alicante (Cifuentes, 2006). This initiative has already been implemented by some entities

that participated in the presented research.

On the other hand, the ﬁndings of our study suggest that the majority of entities in the Community

of Madrid include programs in their offerings to address the needs of migrants related to literacy.

Some of them consider literacy processes and attendance to Spanish courses simultaneously, while

others do not. The Proposals of Alicante (Cifuentes, 2006) recommend that, whenever possible, the

literacy of adult migrants be conducted in their L1 and that it be done “in parallel” with the teaching

of Spanish, and that literacy “be understood as a global process” that goes far beyond reading and

writing” (Cifuentes, 2006). Additionally, there is a demand for speciﬁc initial assessment tools for

students to establish their literacy level. In interviews, program managers and teachers did not re-

port having standardized tests to identify the literacy level of migrant individuals, indicating that this

could be an improvement to the analyzed programs. For this purpose, for example, tools designed

by the Council of Europe ALTE (2023), in the LAMI-LASLLIAM project, and the proposed multi-level

oral test, POEM, from the working group linked to the Chair of Spanish for Migrants at Nebrija Uni-

versity (Urueña et al., 2023), could be utilized.

The ﬁndings of our study also point to the need to consider in the programs that, once students with

literacy needs join Spanish courses along with students who do not have that need, they receive

some additional reinforcement to compensate for their learning pace. Studies indicate that, with few

exceptions, LESLLA learners do not receive additional hours to help them reach the required level,

and this complementary adaptation should be included in the programs and courses free of charge

(Rocca et al., 2020).

On the other hand, the testimonies provided by the interviewees coincide with the research results

in highlighting the lack of experience, limited training, and sometimes the practice of teaching wi-

4.5. Literacy and Teacher Training Needs in

Programs for Migrants in the

Community of Madrid

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thin the framework of volunteering, as one of the major challenges that entities developing Spanish

and literacy courses for migrant individuals have to address. Speciﬁc training is required for teachers

working with LESLLA adult migrant students (Sosinski, 2018). The speciﬁc difﬁculties of this group

of students in learning the new additional language (they can take up to eight times longer than

educated adults to reach level A1 of the CEFR) (Naeb & Young-Scholten, 2017) necessitate a speciﬁc

instruction process for their teachers.

Therefore, it seems essential for teachers working with LESLLA learners, one of the most vulnera-

ble groups within the migration context, to urgently undergo training so that they can familiarize

themselves with the speciﬁc knowledge and skills they need to develop as teachers of these groups

(Sosinski, 2018; Naeb & Young-Scholten, 2017). Disseminating among the teams of entities offering

literacy courses, training materials created by research groups on LESLLA students (Sosinski et al.,

2018), and working on the guidelines they present would be a well-received measure.

It is worth noting that innovative initiatives have been identiﬁed in the sample when it comes to un-

derstanding the literacy process from the perspective of multiple literacies. As mentioned, one of

the entities reported having a course that focuses on linguistic and digital literacy. This practice is

consistent with Springer’s (2017) reﬂection, which insists on the need to consider “multimodal media

literacy” in schools and that the training of migrants should also take this aspect into account.

Our study has also found evidence that, although Spanish courses for employment purposes still

have minimal representation (only one entity reported offering such a course), around 50% of the

entities in the sample provide their students with pathways to combine their Spanish training with

job training courses. Various approaches to learning the new additional language to facilitate access

to employment are emerging in Europe. The work of Grünhage-Monetti and Braddell (2017) has

identiﬁed four different modalities in linguistic training for employment purposes: a) learning the

new language prior to employment (traditional model); b) learning the new language in vocational

training schools; c) learning the new language for speciﬁc professional areas and qualiﬁcations; d)

learning the language in the workplace. The latter modality was not identiﬁed in the analyzed sam-

ple. According to research, conducting language courses in the workplace is very promising (Grün-

hage-Monetti & Svet, 2017; Sahradyan, 2017; Sjösvärd & Braddell, 2017) and is supported by over

a decade of experience in Sweden with good results. The Language for Work Network (LfW) has

managed to involve policymakers, researchers, and professionals from different sectors to promote

projects for learning the new additional language in the workplace. Their materials and activities,

including the guide “Language for work, How to help adult migrants develop work-related language

skill5,” published by the Council of Europe and the European Centre for Modern Languages, which

includes speciﬁc recommendations, can be accessed on their website6.

5 https://languageforwork.ecml.at/Portals/48/documents/LFW-quick-guide-EN.pdf?timestamp=1554984122695

6 http://languageforwork.ecml.at

4.6. Emerging Strategies in Linguistic Training

for Employment of Migrants in Europe

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Another developmental path highlighted by this study concerns creating a catalog of Spanish pro-

grams for adult migrants with different employment purposes, as already suggested in the Proposals

of Alicante (Cifuentes, 2006).

Another ﬁnding of our study relates to the fact that, in line with the recommendations outlined by

the OECD (2021), all entities in the analyzed sample, aware of the value of linguistic training for mi-

grants, have incorporated mechanisms to promote their intrinsic motivation and encourage regular

attendance in courses. All programs, to the best of their abilities, have open courses to incorporate

new students who regularly come to their facilities and offer courses with ﬂexible schedules to fa-

cilitate continuity in the programs, which, as noted by Minuz and Borri (2017), is one of the critical

elements of these programs.

In the analyzed sample, the coexistence of annual courses with quarterly or semester-based mo-

dules has been identiﬁed. To facilitate motivation and goal orientation, specialists point to the con-

venience of prioritizing intensive quarterly or semester-based courses, as “annual courses [...] are

inadequate due to the excessive mobility of students” (Cifuentes, 2006).

On the other hand, although it is true that the ﬁndings of this study have shown that refugee pro-

grams have greater measures to promote regular attendance at courses (mandatory training, signing

individual commitment contracts in learning, and a comprehensive coverage program – language

training and accommodation, maintenance, other types of training, as well as social, legal, and psy-

chological support and access to employment), the programs of other entities have managed to

incorporate various tools to encourage student motivation and participation through other mecha-

nisms, such as issuing certiﬁcates, using participatory and collaborative methodologies, inclusive

humanistic, emancipatory pedagogies, and recognizing multilingual repertoires and the knowledge

capital of migrants. This latter aspect has been highlighted (Hamurcu, 2017; Laimer & Wurzenrainer,

2017) as an essential element to achieve “the integration of multilingualism in classrooms,” which

involves valuing and utilizing students’ own linguistic repertoires (Laimer & Wurzenrainer, 2017).

Among the design principles that Nieuwboer and Rood (2017) collect for language courses to faci-

litate the social integration of immigrants, there is an emphasis on encouraging participants to ex-

press themselves and resort to the use of L1 in the classroom. Similarly, Young-Scholten and Peyton

(2018) report the creation by the LESLLA association of an online portal with resources “in the native

languages of migrants and refugees, for example, with texts that students can read and that teachers

and tutors can use when working with students.”

As the research data have also shown, in the Community of Madrid, the strategy of collaboration with

non-traditional partners and entities in language training has been successfully explored to add the

experience of specialized entities in social and community intervention to programs. In line with the

good practice reported by the CEPI in the sample, Gout (2017) reports good results in programs that

combine the language training of migrant women with civic training and empowerment, through

intensive and long-term courses, focused on developing leadership and linguistic skills for debate,

4.7. Incentives to Promote Immigrant

Attendance in Courses

4.8. Innovative Partnerships in Language

Training: Collaborative Experiences

in the Community of Madrid

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[ 43 ]

negotiation, expressing opinions, and argumentation. On the other hand, the practices identiﬁed in

the popular school of the sample, framed within the principles of Paulo Freire’s emancipatory pe-

dagogy, are consistent with the works of Springer (2017) which highlight the need for this training

to be understood within the framework of social and community pedagogy, as it makes sense in a

broader personal or collective life project. This author also insists that institutional offerings are too

rigid and prescriptive and do not usually consider this pedagogy of accompaniment and solidarity.

On another level, the ﬁndings of the study indicate that a pending challenge for language training

programs for migrants in the Community of Madrid is related to the integration of ICT. Although it is

true that all entities report having incorporated digital tools in face-to-face training and that during

the pandemic, most of them offered online training, the possibility of conducting courses in other

training modalities (online, blended) is in a very early phase. To help entities integrate ICT into their

programs, it is essential to disseminate among entities the online platforms that have already been

developed for adult migrant students. Successful experiences in other countries can be of interest:

Nedbox (a learning environment for Dutch-learning migrants to create learning opportunities for lei-

sure time) (Schiepers et al., 2017), the MASELTOV project (mobile assistance for social inclusion and

empowerment of immigrants with persuasive learning technologies and social network services),

and SALSA (sensors and applications for languages in smart areas) as reported by Kukulska-Hulme

et al. (2017).

Our ﬁndings regarding the situation of some of the teachers from the sample entities coincide with

situations reported by teaching specialists, researchers (Sarraj, 2017; Rossner, 2008), as well as by

UNESCO (2018), which insists that “teachers are the key to successful inclusion,” that they require

“equitable remuneration,” that “volunteer teachers are frequently relied upon,” and that “they need

training to handle overcrowded, multilingual classrooms or those with students of different ages.” In

particular, the training of LESLLA teachers has been demanded (Sosinski, 2018). The creation of the

LESLLA association has shown the strength of communities of specialists in language teacher trai-

ning and the capacity of digital media for its dissemination. Another essential aspect in the training

of Spanish teachers in migration contexts, as pointed out by García and Ambadiang (2018), should

focus on translanguaging practices, essential for valuing and recognizing and incorporating the mul-

tilingual repertoires of migrant students into classroom work.

Based on the ﬁndings of the study, we can conclude that many of the challenges that Spanish pro-

gram providers for migrants will have to face in the coming years could be articulated through a sin-

gle central axis, which refers to incorporating systematic mechanisms for self-evaluation and impro-

vement of their Spanish programs, which they currently lack, as inferred from the data reported in

the interviews conducted as part of this study. For this task, there are two reference works that have

existed for more than a decade. The ﬁrst is the project of the Language Policy Unit of the Council

of Europe, which consisted of adapting, for the teaching of additional languages to adult migrants,

4.9. Challenges and Opportunities: Integration

of ICT in Language Training for Migrants

in the Community of Madrid

4.10. Challenges and Needs in Teacher Training

4.11. Development of Processes with Quality

Systems in Spanish Programs for

Migrants: Perspectives and Tools

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[ 44 ]

the scheme that the EAQUALS organization uses for evaluating entities that apply for its quality seal.

This work was published under the title Providers of courses for adult migrants Self-Assessment Han-

dbook adapted by Richard Rossner from the Self-Assessment Handbook developed by EAQUALS

(Rossner, 2014). The document, in the form of a checklist, offers course providers for adult migrants

142 descriptors, organized into ten sections7. These descriptors specify the conditions that must be

met by the courses of a language training program for adult migrants. Among all of them, critical fac-

tors include those related to course design and methodological and didactic choices, as well as tho-

se referring to the competencies, training, and experience of the teachers who conduct the courses.

The other tool that can be used for the self-evaluation and improvement of the value of these cour-

ses and services is the Français Langue d’Intégration (FLI8) quality seal framework. Its content can

be consulted on the European Commission’s pages. Although it is obviously contextualized to the

French environment, it offers a comprehensive set of descriptors of the competencies that teachers

and coordinators of a French program for adult migrants should use as a reference for the effective

exercise of their functions. In this sense, it can be helpful for entities in our context.

The improvement of education has proven to be an effective tool for promoting civic participation

and is especially important in the language training of adult migrants due to their “vulnerability [...]

and the urgency of their learning needs” (Rossner, 2008). This study has helped identify the achieve-

ments of entities in the Community of Madrid that offer Spanish programs with Spanish and literacy

courses for adult migrants, as well as aspects that, according to the conclusions of the OECD study

(2021) and research in the ﬁeld, need to be strengthened.

Collaborative work between entities and the practice of self-evaluation could be a positive initiative

in the initial phase for improving these programs. However, in the medium and long term, quality

assurance mechanisms will be required, as already exist in other OECD countries (Villarreal, 2009), to

ensure the improvement of Spanish teaching in these entities. Our study points to the need to direct

efforts towards six key aspects: 1) diversiﬁcation of course offerings and orientation of language tra-

ining towards labor, social, and community purposes; 2) linking course programs to a reference and

common educational curriculum for teaching Spanish to adult migrants that includes Pre-A1 levels;

3) an intercultural and multilingual approach that starts from recognizing the knowledge capital of

these students and their multilingual repertoires as resources for learning Spanish and developing

their own identity in the new community; 4) recognition, professionalization, continuous training

(especially for LESLLA students) of teachers as critical factors for the quality and effectiveness of tra-

ining; 5) integration of ofﬁcial linguistic proﬁciency certiﬁcation into the training pathways of adult

7 Sections: Identiﬁcation of the learning needs of migrant students, Planning of teaching and learning, Teaching re-

sources and materials, Teaching and learning support, Assessment of learning, Internal quality assurance, Other services

in addition to the courses offered by the program, Training, experience, training plans and management of the teams

participating in the program, and Internal communication and information.

8 The Français Langue d’Intégration (FLI) framework can be accessed at: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/

library-document/referentiel-ﬂi-francais-langue-dintegration_en

5. Conclusions

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[ 45 ]

migrants; 6) introduction by administrations of tools to rebalance the existing offer and ensure equal

opportunities in access to language training for all adult migrants.

Our study has some limitations. It is a research with a heavy qualitative data component, with a

limited and non-randomly selected sample, so the ﬁndings cannot be generalized to all entities,

to all teams of Spanish programs for adult migrants in the Community of Madrid. These ﬁndings

need to be complemented with regional and national level research using other tools, beyond the

semi-structured interview, with a large-scale random sample, where direct responses from program

managers, as well as Spanish teachers for adult migrants who do not have managerial roles in their

entities, can be obtained. Semi-structured interviews have proven in our study to be a strong instru-

ment for in-depth understanding of the context and reality analyzed. However, a ﬁeldwork of direct

observation in the facilities where entities develop their Spanish programs is needed, including class

observations, and analysis of samples of teachers’ and students’ work.

This study is part of a broader research project aimed at identifying descriptors of good practices in

Spanish programs for adult migrant students to help guide the development and improvement of

these programs. Lastly, we want to highlight the work and contribution of each of the entities that

participated in the study to the training, development of basic skills, and lives of the people they

serve and support in their programs. Without the commitment and high involvement of their teams,

this response would not be possible. The necessary improvements to be incorporated into their pro-

grams will result from coordinated work that we can carry out, among other things, from institutional

action, research in the teaching of Spanish to adult migrants, the activity and social commitment of

entities, and above all, from the actions and involvement of teachers, who are, after all, the critical

and key factors, and those who provide a daily response to the language training needs of migrants,

thus contributing to their integration.

This research has been funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation, State Research Agency

Reference: PID2020-113460RB-I00; R&D&I project titled “Multiliteracies for adult at-risk learners of

additional languages (MultiLits)”.

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Amery, E. (2021). Challenges in Fostering Intercultural Competencies from the Perspectives of Stake-

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Table 1. Study Results: Achievements, Innovative Practices, and Difﬁculties Identiﬁed in Spanish Programs for Adult Migrants in the

Community of Madrid

OECD Recommendations

(2021) for the Development

of Language Programs for

Migrants

Identiﬁed Achievements Identiﬁed Innovative Practices Identiﬁed Difﬁculties

Ensure Language Training

Except for entities spe-

cialized in asylum, en-

rollment in the courses is

allowed for any migrant,

regardless of their legal

or migratory status.

The entities specializing in asylum guarantee

the right to language training for individuals

enrolled in the asylum program (the pro-

grams establish the mandatory nature of the

language learning courses)

Unstructured offerings with different reg-

ulatory frameworks for Spanish programs

(both formal and informal education), with

public and private offerings Only individuals

enrolled in the asylum program are guaran-

teed the right to language training There

are no centralized mechanisms for dissem-

inating information about Spanish program

offerings

Eliminate economic barriers

to access

All entities, except the

EEOII, offer free Spanish

programs for adult mi-

grants

In one entity, nominal participation fees have

been established to ensure the student’s

commitment to their training and involve-

ment in their educational project. In the case

of another entity, Spanish program funding

comes from the proﬁts of ELE (Spanish as a

Foreign Language) programs marketed to

international students for language stays in

Spain

The EEOII, the only institutions authorized

to offer ofﬁcial ELE (Spanish as a Foreign

Language) education, have high economic

barriers for their courses. Their programs

are not speciﬁcally designed for migrants

(except for those offered as special courses,

which require authorization that is not always

granted). Consequently, in the sample, mi-

grants in their A1-B1 courses are underrep-

resented (10%)

Appendix 1. Study Results.

(Continúa)

https://doi.org/10.33776/linguodidactica.v4.8288

[ 51 ]

OECD Recommendations

(2021) for the Development

of Language Programs for

Migrants

Identiﬁed Achievements Identiﬁed Innovative Practices Identiﬁed Difﬁculties

Attend language cour-

ses as soon as possible

All entities, except for

those providing formal

education (EEOII and

CEPA), offer courses year-

round to facilitate access

as soon as migrants wish

to begin their training

In one entity, “Welcome Courses” have been

organized, allowing students to join as long

as there are available spots in a course that

suits their needs. In another entity, there are

co-teaching practices and classroom sup-

port provided by volunteers and trainee

teachers to facilitate the immediate entry of

students into the courses

Among migrants, only one group (beneﬁcia-

ries of the asylum program) is guaranteed

the right to early language training. There

are groups (especially women) who enroll in

courses after having already resided in Spain

for several years

Have speciﬁc training itiner-

aries

All entities offer general

Spanish courses (levels

A1-B1). The majority of

entities (70%) offer litera-

cy course

One entity offers general Spanish courses at

the B2 level speciﬁcally for migrants. Some

entities offer DELE preparation courses

(mainly A2). The CEPI offers Spanish courses

for speciﬁc group

Excessive homogeneity in the offerings and

a lack of courses for speciﬁc groups and

speciﬁc purposes. Traditional conception

of literacy. Except in the Ofﬁcial Language

Schools (EOOII), the vast majority of entities

have not linked courses of different levels

(literacy, A1-B1) with instructional hour

Integrate linguistic and pro-

fessional training

More than half of the en-

tities offer linguistic and

professional training itin-

eraries, either in parallel

or sequentially. Students

who reach an A2 level can

join the latter

One entity regularly offers a Spanish course

for work purposes. In the CEPA, there is a

wide range of professional training cours-

es. The private entity linked to the Catholic

Church is integrating professional training

into its Spanish offerings. Entities special-

izing in asylum offer their program beneﬁ-

ciaries access to employment services with

individualized advice and training

No entity offers Spanish courses for speciﬁc

professions.

Only one course in the sample has been

identiﬁed as Spanish for professional or

work purposes.

High cost of integrated linguistic and profes-

sional training and the requirement for de-

signers and teachers with dual specialization

(language and the professional ﬁeld)

Having ﬂexible modalities

and schedules

All entities allow students

to change schedules to

encourage attendance

and only drop them after

prolonged absences and

when there are people on

the waiting list.

In the EEOII, attendance is not mandatory,

and students do not lose the right to take

the ofﬁcial proﬁciency certiﬁcation exam in-

dependently. The certiﬁcation is also avail-

able to students who are not enrolled in the

EEOII.

In the EEOII, there is the possibility of trans-

ferring records to other centers.

The entities are involved in ﬁnding alterna-

tive training options if a student cannot con-

tinue studying in the program.

Two entities offer weekend course

The offering of courses in modalities other

than in-person is minimal. Only one entity

offers A1 level courses online.

The EEOII have the possibility of offering

four-month Spanish courses speciﬁcally for

migrants, but they need authorization from

the Ministry of Education, which they do not

always obtain.

The EEOII have the possibility of offering

blended-learning ELE (Spanish as a Foreign

Language) courses

(Continúa)

https://doi.org/10.33776/linguodidactica.v4.8288

[ 52 ]

OECD Recommendations

(2021) for the Development

of Language Programs for

Migrants

Identiﬁed Achievements Identiﬁed Innovative Practices Identiﬁed Difﬁculties

Foster intrinsic motivation

All entities use partici-

patory, experiential, and

inclusive methodologies,

task-based approaches,

and student-centered

teaching to foster their

motivation.

All entities offer certiﬁ-

cates to their students.

All entities provide cultur-

al outings, participation

in center activities, indi-

vidualized support, and

tutoring.

Slightly more than half

of the entities offer their

students access to social

services

The entities specialized in refuge include

language learning services in a comprehen-

sive support program (employment, inclu-

sion, housing, care, etc.). One of the asylum

entities requires students to sign a learning

contract.

Some entities have created and published

their own literacy and Spanish manuals.

One entity has integrated Spanish classes

based on dancing. The same entity offers

free breakfasts to students.

One entity provides a childcare service

during parents’ classes.

In one entity, migrant students are part of its

cultural association

Only in asylum programs do students access

social beneﬁts (assistance, housing, mainte-

nance) during the initial six months, which

helps them attend classes regularly. They

receive individualized social, psychological,

legal, and welfare support.

Only the certiﬁcates from the EEOII have of-

ﬁcial validity

Hire specialized teachers

Awareness of the need

for speciﬁc training for

teachers of these courses

in:

• Teaching Span-

ish, speciﬁcally Spanish in

migration contexts

• Teaching and

supporting LESLLA stu-

dents Continuous profes-

sional development ini-

tiatives for teachers have

been identiﬁed

Several entities offer training courses for

Spanish teachers in migration contexts (both

in-person and online) for future teachers

within their organizations.

Only the EEOIIs have professional proﬁles

for Spanish teachers: career and interim

civil servants from the speciﬁc body of ELE

teachers.

70% of the entities have hired teachers, but

the practice of teaching within the frame-

work of volunteer work is very prominent

(50%), even in programs funded with public

funds (asylum program and private CEPI and

CEPA), and it coexists with paid employment

Coexistence of very disparate situations in

hiring, recognition, specialized training as

a Spanish teacher, distribution of teaching

and non-teaching hours, employment, re-

muneration, and even volunteer status.

Lack of recognition for Spanish teachers in

general, and for Spanish teachers for mi-

grants in particular.

There are teachers without ELE training or

with little to no training working with LESLLA

students

Integrate the use of ICT in

training

Widespread use of some

ICT tools (mobile phones

or apps) in A1-B1 in-per-

son courses, and more

limited use in literacy

courses (only WhatsApp

Slightly less than a third of the entities have

the possibility of using virtual classrooms to

support the courses.

One entity offers courses in both linguistic

and digital literacy

Heterogeneous digital competence proﬁle

among teachers.

Training is required for teachers in these en-

tities to integrate ICT into Spanish programs,

along with time to create materials and re-

sources.

There are access barriers for migrant stu-

dents to ICT (usage and digital literacy)

(Continúa)

https://doi.org/10.33776/linguodidactica.v4.8288

[ 53 ]

OECD Recommendations

(2021) for the Development

of Language Programs for

Migrants

Identiﬁed Achievements Identiﬁed Innovative Practices Identiﬁed Difﬁculties

Collaborate with education

specialists and non-tradi-

tional partners

Collaboration initiated

with both educational

specialists and non-tradi-

tional partners.

Some entities include social workers, psy-

chologists, and intercultural mediators in

their Spanish programs.

Some entities provide their students with ac-

cess to legal and translation services

The heads of departments at Ofﬁcial Schools

of Languages (EOOII) cannot initiate collab-

orations with other entities without authori-

zation from the Regional Ministry.

Collaborations between entities and institu-

tions initiated privately have been identiﬁed,

not directed or driven by public policies, but

without support, it is very difﬁcult to maintain

their continuity

Incorporate mechanisms for

the organization and regula-

tion of the offerings

The mechanisms for reg-

ulating the public provi-

sion of Spanish are not

speciﬁc to teaching mi-

grants.

In non-formal education,

there are no mechanisms

for organizing the offer-

ings

Excellent educational organization in the

Ofﬁcial Schools of Languages (EOOII), al-

though the presence of migrant students in

their programs is minimal due to high bar-

riers and the lack of speciﬁc offerings for

these students.

Self-regulation of the offerings in non-formal

Spanish teaching programs: the common

references are the CEFR, the PCIC, and the

publication “Guidelines from the Cervantes

Institute for an Emergency Course for Immi-

grants.”

Currently, there is no collaboration with the

Council of Europe’s speciﬁc projects for mi-

grant language learners: LIAM and LL

There is no Spanish curriculum for adult mi-

grants that can be used as a reference in ei-

ther private or public education.

Ofﬁcial Spanish teaching (EOOII) does not

have speciﬁc guidelines for adapting the

curriculum and teaching to migrant stu-

dents.

In non-formal education, there are no re-

gional or national initiatives to help design

Spanish programs for migrant students or

to regulate and harmonize the existing of-

ferings

Evaluate the quality and

outcome of language

training

All entities have mecha-

nisms for collecting infor-

mation from teachers and

students to evaluate the

courses.

Ofﬁcial education is supported by educa-

tional inspection.

In entities, programs are monitored through:

teachers’ meetings; the preparation of re-

ports (although only when reporting to ex-

ternal entities); class observations by pro-

gram coordinators; co-teaching; program

evaluations by students, student and teacher

assemblies, public student evaluations con-

ducted via Google; and the use of the SACIC

quality criteria from the Instituto Cervantes

for the development of Spanish programs

There are no self-assessment descriptors for

the speciﬁc context of teaching Spanish to

adult migrants.

There are no institutional mechanisms for

the review and improvement of Spanish pro-

grams for migrants

Source: own elaboration