Profile of the Adult Immigrant: Key Factors for Social Inclusion from a Sociodemographic, Linguistic, and Labour Perspective

Perfil del inmigrante adulto: factores clave para la inclusión social desde una perspectiva sociodemográfica, lingüística y laboral

Introduction

It is a fact that the adult immigrant population represents a segment of society that must be actively included, both in Spain and France, as well as in other European countries. These democratic nations are built upon a legal framework that fundamentally upholds human dignity, promotes universal education, and fosters social inclusion. In this study, we start by examining the profile of adult immigrants in relation to specific sociodemographic, educational, and employment factors. These aspects are considered crucial when strategically addressing the resources available for learning an additional language, with the underlying goal of promoting social inclusion.

Sociodemographic Factors of Adult Immigrants

The integration processes of adult immigrants are strongly influenced by sociodemographic factors such as age, gender, language proficiency, and length of stay in the host country (Berry, 1997; Fokkema & de Haas, 2011; Ward et al., 2001; Young-Scholten, 2013). These factors do not operate in isolation but combine to shape pathways of inclusion or exclusion within European societies marked by structural diversity (Aneas & Donoso, 2008; Cachón Rodríguez, 2009; Godenau et al., 2014).

In Southern Europe, studies show a predominance of young adults among the immigrant population, especially in the agricultural and service sectors (García et al., 2009; Recaño-Valverde & De Miguel-Luken, 2012; Capote Lama & Fernández-Suárez, 2021). However, the age profile has diversified, with a progressive increase in late-stage adult immigration and returning older migrants (Sotomayor-Morales et al., 2017). Women, who are increasingly present, face a triple vulnerability associated with gender, ethnicity, and social class, particularly in the domestic sphere (Morcillo Martínez et al., 2024; Setién Santamaría & Acosta González, 2010).

As for knowledge of the host country’s language, linguistic competence is identified as a cross-cutting factor (Reyes et al., 2021). Elgorriaga Astondoa et al. (2020) and Cabezón-Fernández & Herrera-Rubalcaba (2024) find a correlation between length of stay and linguistic and cultural competence, although this is mediated by prior schooling and access to specific programs. Gender dynamics reveal distinct patterns here, with women showing greater involvement in learning the host country’s language (Dion & Dion, 2001).

Several studies (Hosnedlová & Stanek, 2010; Gustafsson & Zheng, 2006) confirm that length of residence promotes integration, particularly when accompanied by legal stability, social support networks, and inclusive policies. However, adverse economic conditions can reverse positive integration trends, disproportionately affecting the immigrant population (Rinken et al., 2011).

Factors such as perceived cultural proximity and the size of one’s social network also contribute to better social integration and well-being (Arcarons & Muñoz-Comet, 2018; Bolet, 2020; Elgorriaga Astondoa et al., 2020; Martín & Aguilera, 2017; Paloma et al., 2014; Rodríguez Calles & Iglesias Martínez, 2025).

Linguistic Factors of Adult Immigrants

Language proficiency is a central axis in the inclusion processes of adult immigrants in Southern Europe, particularly in sociolaboral, educational, and cultural terms (Martínez, 2011; Nicolosi, 2019). Learning the host country’s language not only facilitates functional communication but also serves as a tool for active citizenship (Asensio Pastor, 2023; Holguín Vaca, 2024), by enabling access to employment, education, services, and political participation (Vaquero Ibarra & Fonseca Mora, 2022). Moreover, it is closely linked to the success of the migration process (Fonseca Mora, 2024).

The linguistic landscape also influences symbolic integration: its multilingual or monolingual configuration can serve as a marker of inclusion or exclusion (Camacho-Taboada & Yang, 2023). Bianco and Ortiz (2019) emphasize the need for plural language policies that guarantee the right to learn the host language without renouncing one’s own, as also advocated by Tomás- Cámara (2020) and the LASLLIAM reference guide (Minuz & Rocca, 2023), developed by the Council of Europe for literacy and second language learning in the linguistic integration of adult migrants. Language contact in migratory contexts creates dynamics of hybridization and new varieties — not as interference, but as adaptive strategies and expressions of cultural agency (Zimmermann, 2021; Sumonte & Fuentealba, 2019).

The development of language competence in migrants depends on variables such as age at arrival, prior educational level, typological distance between languages, exposure to the language, and their original linguistic background — the latter often overlooked by training programs (Mavrou & Martín Leralta, 2018; Carmona, 2005; Gómez Laguna & Leontaridi, 2020). Yet, effective pedagogy should recognize the migrant learner as a plurilingual and culturally situated subject (Guerrero Ruiz & Benavent Döring, 2003). Length of residence is another key variable, although it is influenced by factors like work hours and the discontinuity of L2 training (Asensio Pastor, 2023).

The learning environment also impacts outcomes. Kyrligkitsi and Mouti (2023) propose a multi-method approach linking sociobiographical variables with language progress. L2 instruction in non-formal settings, according to Sosiński (2018) and Steeb et al. (2019), must overcome barriers like lack of pedagogical continuity, limited resources, and high student turnover. In the Spanish context, authors such as Asensio Pastor (2023) and Cancelas-Ouviña (2022) criticize the limited institutionalization of Spanish as an L2, the lack of contextualized materials, and the need to incorporate innovative approaches such as graphic narratives and affective literacy to foster student engagement (Fonseca Mora, 2024).

Labor Factors of Adult Immigrants

The labor integration of adult immigrants is shaped by structural factors that limit their access to stable and skilled employment. This reality is not uniform but varies depending on sociodemographic factors and legal status (Cachón Rodríguez, 2009; Cuadrado et al., 2024). As noted by Moreno-Colom and De Alós (2016), the apparent normalization of immigrants’ labor participation hides persistent dynamics of exclusion and underintegration, showing that integration discourses do not always translate into effective measures (Arango Vila-Belda, 2022; Tavan, 2006).

Previous training emerges as a crucial factor and reveals wide disparities — from illiterate individuals or those with incomplete primary education to highly qualified professionals facing a mismatch between their credentials and available jobs, leading to frustration and a loss of human capital (Mendoza Pérez, 2022; Montero-González et al., 2025; Muñoz Comet, 2016). Cuadrado et al. (2024) confirm that although immigrants often have training levels comparable to — or even higher than — natives, they remain concentrated in low-skilled jobs. This paradox is explained by limitations in credential recognition and a lack of investment in active employment policies (Arcarons & Muñoz-Comet, 2018; Elgorriaga et al., 2020).

Jiménez Blasco and Redondo González (2007) highlight that overqualification is especially severe among immigrant women, affecting their development opportunities. Domestic and care work is highly feminized, poorly paid, and often operates outside legal frameworks (García et al., 2009; Laparra et al., 2007; Morcillo Martínez et al., 2023). According to Gil Araujo and Pedone (2014), migrant women face greater barriers to formal employment and additional pressure to balance family responsibilities, limiting their participation in training processes.

Length of stay is another key factor influencing job stability for migrants. Caparrós and Navarro (2010) indicate that the longer immigrants remain in the country, the higher their chances of securing permanent contracts and leaving informal employment. Bermúdez and Zapata López (2019) support this, linking settlement to better contracts and job satisfaction — though not necessarily upward mobility. Aguilera Izquierdo (2006) adds that prolonged legal residence supports formal labor market integration. Santana Vega et al. (2018) show that time spent in training programs and stable employment improves labor skills among young migrants at risk of exclusion.

This study aims to explore the profile of adult immigrants learning an additional language in Huelva and Marseille, in order to understand which factors foster social integration.

Method

The quantitative method is justified as it provides an approach typical of the social sciences, offering an objective measurement of two groups of individuals in different cities belonging to two European countries. This approach allows for comparison and extrapolation of results to a larger population. The design of this study is innovative, as there are few studies that have combined various statistical tests while also seeking a structural organization among the variables affecting this phenomenon, helping to assess the impact of contextual factors.

Description of the Quantitative Study

Below is a detailed description of how the study was conducted, including the application of the quantitative method.

The research questions posed were as follows:

1. Is there a significant relationship between the age of immigrants and their employment status in Huelva and Marseille?

2. Does living in Huelva or Marseille influence the command of the local language and labor integration?

3. Does vocational training received affect the current employment status of immigrants?

4. Does the number of languages a person speaks affect their social and labor integration in their city of residence?

The hypotheses proposed are the following:

1. H₁ There is a positive relationship between the age of immigrants and their labor integration in both Huelva and Marseille.

2. H₂ Prolonged residence in Huelva or Marseille improves command of the local language and facilitates labor integration.

3. H₃ Immigrants who have received vocational training have a better current employment status.

4. H₄ Immigrants who speak multiple languages have better social and labor integration.

Participants

The sample (n=1) is composed of 66 adult immigrants located in Huelva (Spain), and the sample from Marseille (France) (n=2) includes 15 adult immigrants. The combined sample (n) consists of 81 adult immigrants (n = n1 + n2). The Huelva sample (n=1) included 35 women and 31 men. The Marseille sample (n=2) was composed entirely of 15 men. In the Huelva sample, women are the majority. In contrast, in the combined sample (n), men (46 individuals) outnumber women (35 individuals).

Age is represented using a Pareto chart for both samples (n=1 and n=2), where the data are arranged in descending order of frequency, with a cumulative line on a secondary axis representing the percentage of the total. This chart organizes ages in descending order by absolute frequency in ranges, placing the most common ages first.

In the Huelva sample (n=1), individuals aged 28 to 38 are the most frequent, making up 70%, while in the Marseille sample (n=2), participants are younger, grouped between 19 and 31 years old. The cumulative line (n=1) shows that 80% of the sample is between 18 and 48 years old. The Huelva sample (n=1) includes a longer-living group aged 58 to 68, while in the Marseille sample (n=2), the predominant age range is younger (19 to 31 years) at 86.7%, with sparse older representation in the ranges of 31 to 43 (6.7%) and 43 to 55 years (6.7%).

Regarding the nationality represented in Figure 3, the Huelva sample was predominantly composed of individuals from Morocco (26), followed by Ukraine (16), with lower frequencies from Senegal (7) and Mali (5). Other nationalities represented include Russia (2), Romania (1), and Turkey (1) from the European continent, as well as other African nationalities such as Ivory Coast (3), Cameroon (2), Algeria (1), Somalia (1), and Guinea (1).

Regarding the Marseille sample represented in Figure 4, Sudan (8) and Afghanistan (4) are the predominant nationalities, compared to other nationalities such as Ivory Coast (1) from the African continent, along with Bangladesh (1) and Pakistan (1) from the Asian continent. The combined sample includes a total of 16 nationalities.

Procedures

The following statistical analyses were conducted to address the research questions and test the hypotheses:

• Normality tests: Shapiro-Wilk test for continuous variables.

• Student’s t-tests and Mann-Whitney U tests: To compare differences between the two samples.

• Chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test: To analyze categorical variables.

• Pearson and Spearman correlations: To assess relationships between continuous variables.

• Linear and logistic regressions: To predict continuous and categorical variables, respectively.

• Structural analysis: To identify complex relationships among multiple variables.

The structural analysis in this study is based on a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) approach to examine the relationships between various variables that influence labor and social integration of immigrants in Huelva and Marseille. Advanced techniques were employed to identify both direct and indirect dependencies among factors such as age, length of residence, languages spoken, training received, and employment status, providing a comprehensive view of their impact on the integration process.

Results

The most frequent length of residence in Huelva for the sample (n=1) ranges from 3 to 75 months (6.25 years). The ranges then gradually increase, reaching up to 363 months, equivalent to 30 years of residence. In contrast, the Marseille sample has spent significantly fewer months residing in the city, mostly ranging from 1 to 8.8 months (less than a year). This French sample includes up to just over 2 years of residence.

When conducting this study, the variables analyzed include the following: polyglot status, previous profession in the country of origin, and professional status in Spain and France. The results are described below.

The variables related to polyglot status include the mother tongue, differentiated as L1I, L1II, and LIII, as well as additional languages, categorized as L2 and L3.

Labor-related variables or factors include the previous profession in the country of origin. In the first group (n=1), 61 individuals reported having a profession, an unpaid occupation such as being a housewife, or being retired, while 5 declared themselves previously inactive. In the second group (n=2), composed of adult immigrants, 12 indicated having had a profession and 3 were inactive.

The professional status in Spain and France varies according to the sample analyzed. In Huelva (n=1), 12 people are currently employed, 1 is a master’s student, 2 are retired, 2 are housewives, and 49 are inactive. In Marseille (n=2), only 1 person is active, while 14 are considered inactive.

This means that, in their countries of origin, 7.6% (5/66) of immigrants (n=1) were inactive. In Spain, inactivity rises to 74.2% (49/66). This suggests a significant barrier to labor market integration, with only 18.2% (12/66) active, 1.5% (1/66) a student, 3% (2/66) retired, and 3% (2/66) housewives. In group n=2 in France, 80% (12/15) of immigrants had a previous profession. However, in France (n=2), only 6.7% (1/15) are active, while 93.3% (14/15) are inactive.

Therefore, in the combined sample, inactivity varies significantly. In their countries of origin, only 7.6% of the immigrants now residing in Spain were inactive. However, once residing in Spain, inactivity increases to 74.2%. This suggests a significant barrier to labor market integration. In the smaller group (n=2) in France, 80% had a previous profession, but only 6.7% are currently active. Only 18.2% are active, while 93.3% are inactive. The sample in France is in a more disadvantaged situation compared to the residents in Spain. It is evident that strategies are needed to address this gap in labor participation.

A descriptive analysis of four variables—Age, Months of Residence, Previous Employment, and Languages Spoken—is shown in Table 1 below. The descriptive statistics table provides an overview of the key variables, including the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, and the p-value from the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, indicating the normality of the distributions.

Regarding the Shapiro-Wilk test, the variables Age and Languages Spoken do not show a significant deviation from normality (p > 0.05), whereas Months of Residence shows a slight deviation (p = 0.05). This is important for determining which statistical tests are appropriate for analyzing the data. The results are presented in Table 2 below.

Regarding sample comparisons, the variable Age shows a significant difference between the samples (p < 0.05), while Months of Residence and Languages Spoken do not show significant differences. The Student’s t-test and Mann-Whitney U test reveal significant differences in the Age variable between the samples, supporting the discussion on the relationship between Age and employment status in Huelva and Marseille. This is shown in Table 3 and Table 4 below.

Based on the analysis of categorical variables, it is found that the differences in Previous Employment are significant at the 0.05 level. The Training Received also shows significant differences between the samples. The results of the Chi-square and Fisher’s Exact Test indicate significant differences in Previous Employment and Training Received, reinforcing the importance of job training in the labor integration of immigrants. These results are presented in Table 5 and Table 6 below.

Based on the correlation tests, considering a combined sample analysis, significant correlations are found between Age and Months of Residence (Pearson) and between Age and Languages Spoken (Spearman). The significant correlations between Age and Months of Residence and Age and Languages Spoken support the discussion on how age and length of residence influence social and labor integration. These findings are presented in Table 7 and Table 8 below.

The regression results indicate that Age is a significant predictor of Months of Residence, explaining 30% of the variability (R² = 0.30, p < 0.01). Additionally, Training Received significantly influences the likelihood of having Previous Employment (p < 0.05). The results of the linear and logistic regressions show that Age is a significant predictor of Months of Residence and that Training Received influences the likelihood of having Previous Employment. These results are presented in Table 9 and Table 10 below.

To conclude the tests, a structural equation model was used, through which the following significant relationships were identified:

• Age and Residence: Age positively influences both months of residence and the number of languages spoken. Older immigrants tend to stay longer in the city and speak more languages, which can facilitate their social and labor integration. The relationship between age and length of residence may be explained by the fact that older immigrants have had more time to settle in the community and develop social and professional networks. Moreover, older immigrants may have achieved greater financial and emotional stability, allowing them to reside longer in a specific city.

  Residence and Local Language: Months of residence positively influence proficiency in the local language and labor integration. A longer residence allows immigrants to improve their language skills and better adapt to the work environment. This is due to greater opportunities to interact with native speakers, which facilitates language learning and practice. Additionally, time spent in residence can be associated with greater exposure to local culture and a better understanding of social norms and expectations, further aiding integration.

• Training and Employment Status: Job training received positively influences current employment status. Immigrants who have received training are better prepared for the labor market, increasing their chances of employment. Training not only enhances technical skills but also boosts confidence and knowledge of the local job market, helping immigrants compete more effectively for jobs. Furthermore, job training may include personal and professional development components, such as communication skills and networking, which are essential for job success.

• Multilingualism and Integration: The number of languages spoken positively influences both social and labor integration. Speaking multiple languages allows immigrants to communicate with a wider range of people, reducing cultural barriers and facilitating integration. Multilingualism is an asset in multicultural and globalized environments, where the ability to communicate in various languages is highly valued. Additionally, speaking multiple languages can open up job opportunities in specific sectors such as tourism, education, and international services, where language skills are in high demand.

These relationships suggest that the labor and social integration of immigrants is determined by a combination of demographic, residency, and acquired skill factors. For example, an older immigrant with more years of residence in the city, who speaks several languages and has received job training, is more likely to be well integrated both professionally and socially. This combination of factors helps immigrants overcome initial barriers and settle more effectively in the host community.

The importance of job training in immigrant integration cannot be underestimated. Job training programs not only provide technical skills but also offer opportunities to learn about the local labor market, build networks, and access resources and support that can aid in job searches. In this regard, training programs should be designed to address the specific needs of immigrants and align with the demands of the local labor market. Moreover, training may include internships and workplace experiences, which are crucial for immigrants to gain practical experience and demonstrate their competencies to potential employers.

Multilingualism also plays a crucial role in immigrant integration, serving as a competitive advantage. Speaking multiple languages not only facilitates communication in social and work environments but can also be a differentiating factor in a competitive job market. Employers value language skills, especially in globalized contexts where the ability to interact with people from diverse cultures is essential. Furthermore, proficiency in several languages can enhance immigrants’ ability to access information and resources in different languages, which may be beneficial for their social and economic integration.

Figure 7, located below, illustrates the structural model presented and the direct relationships: first, between Months of Residence and Labor Integration; second, between Languages Spoken, Labor Integration, and Social Integration—which is considered spurious; and third, between Training Received and Labor Integration. Indirect relationships are also included, such as Age with Languages Spoken, among key study variables. The arrows indicate the direction of the relationships and their coefficients. Further below, Figure 8 visually represents the degree of correlation between variables.

Discussion

The following section addresses the research questions based on the results obtained in this study.

Question 1: Is there a significant relationship between the age of immigrants and their employment status in Huelva and Marseille?

Statistical analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the age of immigrants and their employment status in Huelva (r = 0.45, p < 0.05), whereas no significant relationship was observed in Marseille (r = 0.12, p > 0.05). This indicates that in Huelva, as immigrants grow older, their likelihood of being employed increases. Age as a key factor in integration aligns with previous studies (Berry, 1997; Fokkema & de Haas, 2011; Ward et al., 2001; Young-Scholten, 2013), but contrasts with Martinovic et al. (2009) in the Netherlands, who emphasized variables such as months of residence, prior education, immigration motivation, and ethnicity without considering age as a relevant factor.

This finding can be interpreted in several ways. Older immigrants may have more accumulated work experience, which employers value—not just in terms of job-specific skills, but also soft skills like conflict resolution, time management, and teamwork. Additionally, older immigrants may have had more time to establish and expand their support networks in Huelva, including both personal and professional connections that facilitate job searches and provide better knowledge of the local labor market and resources.

On the other hand, the lack of a significant correlation in Marseille suggests that other factors may be influencing employability there. These could include differences in integration policies, access to training programs, or more pronounced language and cultural barriers. In Marseille, age may not be as critical a determinant as other aspects such as educational level, French language proficiency, or legal status. While age appears to be a key factor for immigrant employability in Huelva, in Marseille, employment outcomes may depend on a more complex mix of factors, suggesting the need for tailored integration policies that reflect these contextual differences.

Question 2: Does residency in Huelva or Marseille influence proficiency in the local language and labor integration?

The data show a significant positive relationship between length of residence in Huelva and Spanish proficiency, in line with other studies (Elgorriaga Astondoa et al., 2020; Cabezón-Fernández & Herrera-Rubalcaba, 2024), as well as improved labor integration, as supported by other authors (Caparros & Navarro, 2010; Rubio-Bajo et al., 2010). In contrast, while a similar trend is seen in Marseille, the relationship is less pronounced.

In Huelva, immigrants with longer residence tend to have greater proficiency in Spanish. This language competence facilitates their participation in the labor market, as language is crucial for most jobs. Moreover, knowing the local language improves access to public services, communication with employers and coworkers, and participation in community activities, all contributing to social and labor integration. This may be attributed to factors such as more accessible and effective integration programs in Huelva, possibly better funded and more widely available. Additionally, the work environment in Huelva might be more welcoming, providing more real-life opportunities to practice the language and receive support.

In Marseille, although longer residence also improves French proficiency, its link to labor integration is weaker. This suggests that other barriers may hinder immigrants’ employment prospects even when they are fluent. These obstacles may include labor market discrimination, increased job competition, or institutional barriers in recognizing foreign qualifications. Integration programs in Marseille may also be less effective or accessible, limiting language learning opportunities and employment prospects. Local policy and institutional support differences between the cities may also play a role.

The findings indicate that extended residence in Huelva is clearly associated with better Spanish proficiency and more effective labor integration. In Marseille, while residence helps with language, it doesn’t show the same impact on employment, highlighting the importance of not only residency duration but also the quality and accessibility of integration programs and local policies.

Question 3: Does job training received affect the current employment status of immigrants?

Job training has a significant impact on the current employment status of immigrants in both Huelva and Marseille, aligning with other findings (Burlat, 2024; Kvist, 2012). Data show that immigrants who received specific training in job skills are more likely to be employed, highlighting the importance of continuous training for labor integration.

Training provides immigrants with the necessary skills and knowledge to meet local labor market demands and boosts their confidence and competence, increasing employability. Programs focusing on local market needs have proven particularly effective in both cities.

Training also helps immigrants overcome barriers such as lack of recognition of foreign qualifications. Locally recognized training allows immigrants to prove their skills and knowledge to employers. Additionally, these programs often include networking opportunities and job search support, which are crucial for successful labor integration.

Question 4: Does the number of languages spoken affect social and labor integration in the cities of residence?

Immigrants who speak multiple languages exhibit better social and labor integration in both cities, suggesting that multilingualism is a significant asset for adapting to new cultural and professional environments, consistent with other studies (Lochmann et al., 2017; Martínez, 2011; Nicolosi, 2019).

Speaking several languages facilitates communication with a broader range of people in the workplace and community and is seen as a valuable skill by employers (Vaquero Ibarra & Fonseca Mora, 2024). In globalized and diverse labor markets, multilingualism opens doors to job opportunities (Camacho-Taboada & Yang, 2023) that might otherwise be inaccessible.

Furthermore, speaking multiple languages helps immigrants access a wider range of services (Vaquero Ibarra & Fonseca Mora, 2024), integrate more easily into local communities, and reduce cultural barriers, leading to greater social acceptance and better labor integration.

Structural analysis supports these findings. The theory of social integration (Blau, 1960; Durkheim, 1983; Habermas, 1981) suggests that immigrants who engage in community life and develop strong social networks are more likely to succeed, echoing Martinez-Damia et al. (2023). Age and residency duration are key in this process, as older and longer-resident immigrants have more opportunities to build social and professional connections. Job training and multilingualism are also crucial for labor integration by enhancing skills and communication abilities (Fernández-Leiva et al., 2023).

Implementing effective integration policies requires a holistic approach (De Graauw & Bloemraad, 2017) addressing various aspects of immigrants’ lives. Beyond job training and language support (Lang, 2018), it is vital to offer services that facilitate social integration, such as community activities, access to health and wellness services, and civic engagement opportunities. Only through a comprehensive approach can immigrants be fully equipped and supported to integrate and contribute to their host communities.

The results highlight the importance of integration policies that consider these multiple aspects. Effective policies should include tailored job training programs, strong language support (Pont-Grau et al., 2020), and strategies to enhance cultural and social integration. It is essential that these policies take into account immigrants’ demographic and residency characteristics to ensure they can fully contribute to local society and economy. Ultimately, successful immigrant integration not only benefits individuals but also enriches communities and societies as a whole. By acknowledging and addressing the many factors that influence integration, more equitable and sustainable strategies and policies can be developed for all.

Conclusion

The behavior of the hypotheses varies depending on the city analyzed. The first hypothesis is supported in Huelva, where the alternative hypothesis is partially fulfilled, while in Marseille, the null hypothesis is validated. As for the second, third, and fourth hypotheses, all are supported in both cities, with the alternative hypothesis being confirmed in each case.

In conclusion, the study shows that several factors influence the labor and social integration of immigrants in Huelva and Marseille. In Huelva, there is a significant positive relationship between immigrants’ age and their employment situation, suggesting that accumulated experience is valued in the labor market. However, in Marseille, age does not show a significant correlation with employment status, indicating that other contextual factors play a more important role. Prolonged residence in Huelva is associated with better Spanish language proficiency and more effective labor integration, which is attributed to more accessible integration and language learning programs. In contrast, in Marseille, although prolonged residence improves French language proficiency, it does not have as strong an impact on labor integration due to additional barriers.

Job training is crucial for improving the employment situation of immigrants in both cities, highlighting the importance of training programs tailored to local market demands. Moreover, proficiency in multiple languages facilitates the social and labor integration of immigrants, as it enables them to communicate effectively and participate fully in society. Immigrants who speak several languages have an advantage in adapting to new cultural and work environments, which enhances their job opportunities and promotes greater social inclusion.

The structural analysis reveals that age positively influences months of residence and language proficiency, facilitating labor and social integration. In addition, prolonged residence improves local language proficiency and employment integration, while job training and multilingualism are key factors for successful integration. These relationships indicate that immigrant integration is determined by a combination of demographic factors, length of residence, and acquired skills, underscoring the need for tailored and personalized integration policies.

As a practical application, it is proposed to implement local language policies tailored to the demographic and contextual characteristics of each city. These should combine intensive language training with employment orientation and vocational programmes aligned with the local labour market. Early access to language courses for immigrants should be prioritised, with particular attention to those who have recently arrived. Furthermore, promoting multilingualism through intercultural workshops and the recognition of mother tongues will support social inclusion. Finally, it is recommended to design personalised training pathways that incorporate age, previous experience, and language proficiency as key factors for effective and sustainable integration.

This study acknowledges certain limitations, such as the limited sample size in Marseille and the contextual differences that may not be representative of other regions. Future research should consider larger and more diverse samples to validate these findings and explore in greater depth the contextual factors that influence immigrant integration. In summary, effective integration policies must be personalized and adapted to the local context, providing strong training programs and language support. This includes considering age, duration of residence, job training, and multilingual proficiency to improve immigrants’ opportunities and quality of life.

The study presents some limitations, including a limited sample size in Marseille, which could affect the generalization of the results. Moreover, there are contextual differences between Huelva and Marseille that may not be representative of other regions. Lastly, reliance on self-reported data could introduce biases into the findings. Additionally, future research should consider larger and more diverse samples to validate these findings.

Author Contributions

BPA: Conceptualization; Data curation; Data collection, cleaning, and organization; Formal analysis; Funding acquisition; Investigation; Methodology; Project administration; Project supervision and coordination; Resources; Software; Supervision; Validation; Visualization; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.

ECB: Conceptualization; Formal analysis; Funding acquisition; Investigation; Methodology; Project administration; Project supervision and coordination; Resources; Software; Supervision and coordination of the project; Validation; Visualization; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.

Data Availability

The data underlying this study are available upon request to the corresponding author.

Funding

R&D+i Project Multiliteracies for Adult At-Risk Learners of Additional Languages (MultiLits), REF. PID2020-113460RB-I00, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ Esta publicación forma parte del Proyecto de I+D+i Multiliteracies for adult at-risk learners of additional languages (Multi-Lits), REF. PID2020-113460RB-I00, financiado por el Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación y Agencia Estatal de Investigación MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033/]

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References